Michael J. Pinder

Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries

2206 South Main Street, Suite C

Blacksburg, Virginia 24060

Surrounded and geographically-isolated by the Shenandoah Valley, the Massanutten region is a unique, montane feature rising from the Ridge and Valley Province in northwestern Virginia. Within this region, Massanutten Mountain is the dominant ridge in addition to many smaller ridges such as Short, Green, Powell, and Threetop Mountains. The Massanutten region extends 72.6 km from Front Royal to just southeast of Harrisonburg at an average width of 4.8 km. The region is bordered by the North Fork of the Shenandoah River to the west and the South Fork of the Shenandoah to the east. Passage Creek, the region's largest water body, drains over half of the Massanutten range. Most mountainous areas are publically-owned and managed by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS). Fort Valley within and Shenandoah Valley surrounding the Massanutten region are predominately agricultural and privately owned.

Owing to its geographic isolation, there is a possibility that the Massanutten region may have or had an endemic salamander. Two salamander species, Plethodon shenandoah (Shenandoah salamander) and P. punctatus (Cow Knob salamander) are found on separate high elevation ridge tops less than 48 km from Massanutten Mountain. Plethodon shenandoah occurs only on talus slopes in Shenandoah National Park and P. punctatus on Shenandoah and North Mountains along the Virginia-West Virginia border (Conant and Collins, 1991). Because of the rugged terrain, and because the Massanutten region has not been adequately sampled, surveys may possibly discover a unique species.

The Virginia Herpetological Society (VHS) annually selects a site around the state in which to inventory reptiles and amphibians. Survey information is used to determine species presence, distribution, and development of comprehensive species list for the study site. These sites are typically undersurveyed and within a unique portion of the state that can be resurveyed on a routine basis. Based on these criteria, the society chose the Massanutten region to conduct a one day survey in the Spring of 1996.

Study Area

The history of the Massanutten region is detailed in the George Washington Forest Service Plan (USDA 1976). During the 19th century, intensive forest clearing at an estimated 300 ha (750 acres) annually was conducted to provide charcoal for five iron furnaces. Over 100 years of disturbance left a barren landscape with severe erosion and thin soils. Vegetation consisted of brushy pastureland and a few scattered trees. The USFS presently manages the Massanutten region for multiuse, which includes timber production, recreation, and aesthetics.

On 4 May 1996, the VHS membership conducted an extensive one-day reptile and amphibian survey of the Massanutten region. Survey sites were selected a prior with the assistance of representatives from the USFS, the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF), and VHS officers. Unique habitats such as streams, shale barrens, bogs, ponds, and springs were targeted. With the exception of a few sites on privateland, most sites were easily accessible and on USFS property. Each team, ranging from two to six members, was assigned a group of survey sites. Sites were marked on 7.5 minute USGS topographic maps. Site codes denote survey team, site number, and subsite (e.g., 1-2-B = Survey team 1, Site number 2, Subsite B).

Sample jars, thermometers, and capture devices were provided to each team. Specimens were collected for positive identification by hand, snake tongs and capture nets. Air and water temperature, weather conditions, and search effort (minutes) were recorded at each site. All specimens were identified, sexed (if possible), and life stage recorded (i.e., egg, larvae, juvenile, and adult). Groups of calling frogs and breeding sites containing aggregations of eggs and larvae were counted as one observation. With the exception of larval amphibians and new county records, all specimens were released at the point of capture. Habitat (micro and macro) and behavior was recorded for each specimen.

Forty-three sites were sampled by six survey teams. These include two sites that were incidental observations. Survey locations are presented in Figure 1 (p. 14-15) and described in Table 1. A total of 10 reptile and 16 amphibian species were collected. An account of each species, as well as habitat, distribution, life stage, and site location is given below.

Anurans

Bufo americanus americanus Holbrook. Adult and tadpole American toads were found at five sites from the southern and northern portions of the survey region. Breeding sites were ephemeral pools, road ruts, and intermittent streams. Adults were found along stream edges and wetlands. Site locations: 1-1-A, 1-5-A, 2-2, 6-1, 7-2-A.

Hyla versicolor (LeConte). Gray treefrogs occurred sporadically throughout the survey area. Two specimens were heard at two separate woodland sites. One frog was found near a spring and the other inhabited a man-made pond. No graytree frog tadpoles were observed. Site locations: 2-3, 3-1, 5-7, 6-2.

Pseudacris crucifer crucifer (Wied). Spring peepers were encountered frequently throughout the survey area. Specimens were heard calling from trees and wildlife ponds. Tadpoles were found at one wetland site along the southern portion of the Massanutten range. Site locations: 1-1-B, 2-2, 3-1, 3-5, 4-2, 5-1, 5-2, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4.

Rana catesbeiana Shaw. Bullfrogs occurred moderately across the survey area with tadpoles being the most prevalent life stage. Breeding sites were wildlife ponds and ponds containing fish. One adult was found near a streambank. Site locations: 1-3-A, 2-1-2, 2-2, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6.

Rana clamitans melinota (Rafinesque). Green frogs were the most prevalent and widely distributed species in the survey. Adults and juveniles were observed in a variety of habitats including intermittent streams, springs, wildlife ponds and large ponds containing fish. Tadpoles were found in the shallow areas of ponds and ephemeral pools. Site locations: 1-1-A, 1-1-B, 2-1-1, 2-2, 3-1, 4-2, 5-2, 5-4, 5-7, 6-2, 6-4, 6-5, 6-6, 6-7, 7-2-A.

Rana palustris (LeConte). Adults and juveniles were found in perennial streams, wildlife ponds, and ponds containing fish. One egg mass was near the shallow portion of a pond. Site locations: 1-1-B, 1-5-A, 2-3, 3-1, 4-2, 6-3, 6-5.

Rana sylvaticus LeConte. Wood frogs were predominantly found along the northeast portion of Massanutten Mt. near South Fork Shenandoah River. Tadpoles inhabited small, wildlife ponds, springs, streams and the shallow, fishless sections of large ponds. No adult wood frogs were found. Site locations: 2-1-1, 2-3, 4-2, 6-7.

Salamanders

Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw). Spotted salamanders occurred infrequently in the northern and central sections of the survey area. Eggs and larvae were found in standing water of road ruts, wildlife ponds, and the backwater of small streams. A spent egg mass was identified as coming from this species. No adult spotted salamanders were found. Site locations: 1-3-B, 2-1-1, 2-2, 6-3, 6-7.

Ambystoma opacum (Gravenhorst). Larval marbled salamanders were found in an ephemeral pool and a wildlife pond. No adults were observed. Observations represent new county records for Page Co. (J. Mitchell pers. comm.). Unfortunately, no vouchers were collected. Site locations: 4-1, 6-3.

Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Rafinesque). Northern dusky salamanders were widely distributed and frequently encountered over the survey area. Habitat comprised of wetted, shallow areas of stream edges, seeps, and springs. Only adults and juveniles were found. Site locations: 2-3, 3-1, 3-6, 5-1, 5-10, 6-2, 7-1, 7-1-A, 7-2-A.

Eurycea bislineata bistineata (Green). Two-lined salamanders were generally distributed in the southern half of the Massanutten Mt. range. Adults and juveniles were found under rocks in headwater streams, springs, and seeps. Larval salamanders were found in pools and beaver ponds. Site locations: 3-1, 5-7, 5-10, 6-2, 6-3, 7-1-A, 7-2-A, 7-2-C, 7-8-A.

Gyrinophilus p. porphyriticus (Green). Northern spring salamanders were found at two sites in the southern portion of the Massanutten range. Larval salamanders were observed in springs and wildlife ponds. No adults were collected. Observation may constitute a new county record for the Massanutten region (J. Mitchell pers. comm.). Specimens were submitted to the Virginia Mus. of Nat. History. Site locations: 6-5, 7-1.

Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens (Rafinesque). Red-spotted newts were numerous throughout the survey area. Adults were observed in wildlife and fish ponds, ephemeral pools and a road rut. No larval newts or red efts were observed. Observations at five separate sites in the Page Co. portion of Massanutten Mt. represent new county records for this species (J. Mitchell pers. comm.). No specimens were collected as vouchers. Site locations: 2-1-2, 2-2, 2-3, 4-2, 5-2, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 6-7.

Plethodon cinereus (Green). Adult redback salamanders were observed along wooded hillsides and streambanks under logs, rocks, trash and leaf litter. Juveniles were found along streamsides under leaf litter. Site locations: 5-1, 5-4, 5-10, 6-2, 6-4, 7-1-A, 7-2-B.

Plethodon cylindraceus Highton. Adult white spotted salamanders were observed in coniferous and deciduous woodlands in and under rotten logs and rocks. One juvenile was found under a log in a wooded area. Site locations: 2-1-1, 2-1-2, 2-3, 3-1, 3-6, 5-4, 6-4.

Pseudotriton ruber ruber (Latreille). Northern red salamanders occurred infrequently over the survey area. Specimens were observed under rocks and leaf litter in springs, seeps, and along a stream edge. Only adults were found. Site locations: 1-5-A, 2-1-2, 5-7.

Lizards

Eumeces fasciatus (Linnaeus). Two adults (one male and one unsexed) and three unsexed juvenile five-lined skinks were found over the survey area. Specimens were observed basking and under logs in wooded areas. Site locations: 1-5-A, 2-3, 2-5, 5-1, 5-7.

Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus (Green). One adult female, two juveniles, and one unidentified age class individual of Northern fence lizards were observed at four separate sites in the northern portion of Massanutten Mt. Specimens were observed in pine forests basking on logs and rocks. A voucher specimen was collected at a later date but was subsequently lost, resulting in no vouchers for Warren County (M. Hayslett pers. comm.). Site locations: 1-5-B, 2-5, 3-6, 6-6.

Snakes

Crotalus horridus (Linnaeus). Timber rattlesnakes were observed at five sites among rocks on ridge tops and talus slopes. To protect this species, detailed locations are not presented in this paper.

Diadophis punctatus edwardsii (Merrem). One specimen of ringneck snake was found along shale barrens. Site location: 5-1.

Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta (Say). Two adult black rat snakes were observed crossing roads at separate sites over the survey area. Site locations: 5-11, 7-7.

Nerodia sipedon sipedon (Linnaeus). Three Northern water snakes were observed. One pair of snakes was observed courting along a log jam of Passage Creek at Elizabeth Furnace. The other specimen was observed basking along a wildlife pond. Site locations: 1-3-A, 6-3.

Regina septemvittata (Say). One queen snake was observed basking on a log jam on Passage Creek. Site location: 1-3-A.

Turtles

Chelydra serpentina (Linnaeus). One common snapping turtle was observed floating in Passage Creek. A second observation was a single specimen in a ridge top vernal pool. Site locations: 1-3-A, 3-1.

Chrysemys picta picta (Schneider). Of the two Eastern painted turtles observed, one was found basking on a log in Passage Creek. The second observation was of a painted turtle surfacing for air in a canal adjacent to the South Fork of the Shenandoah River. Site locations: 1-3-A, 2-4.

Terrapene carolina (Linnaeus). One adult female was observed crossing a road near mixed successional woodland and pasture. Site location: 6-8.

Although a one day sampling can only constitute a snapshot of survey conditions, it does provide a baseline for developing a comprehensive species list, and determining the distribution, habitat-use and temporal occurrence of Massanutten's reptiles and amphibians. The survey found three species that were previously undocumented for counties within this region. Review of past species observations found an additional 13 reptiles and 7 amphibians that were not collected but are known or likely to occur within the survey area based on Tobey (1985), Mitchell (1994), and the VDGIF - Fish and Wildlife Information System (Table 2).

The absence of several reptile species, especially snakes, can be explained by weather conditions and habitat characteristics of the survey sites. Overcast and rainy conditions did not favor finding species that would normally be basking in exposed areas. Most habitats were wet and favored those reptiles associated with aquatic habitats such as Chelydra serpentina (snapping turtle), Nerodia sipedon sipedon (Northern water snake), and Regina septemvittata (queen snake). The Massanutten region is known to harbor several species like Lampropeltis t. triangulum (milk snake), Thamnophis s. sirtalis (garter snake), and Sternotherus odoratus (common musk turtle), which were not collected in this survey. One specimen of Eumeces inexpectatus (southeastern five-lined skink) was recorded near the South Fork Shenandoah River in Page County (Mitchell, 1994). Surprisingly, Coluber constrictor (Northern black racer) was not found and remains unvouchered within the Massanutten region.

In contrast to reptiles, the survey identified 71% of amphibians known to occur in this area. Frogs were particularly well documented. This may be explained by the abundance of man-made wildlife ponds. While these ponds may enhance frog habitat, it is at the expense of springs and seeps that were once suitable habitat for salamanders. The occurrence of some amphibians and their associated life stage reflects the time-of-year the survey was conducted. A late spring survey fails to collect adult Ambystoma maculatum (spotted salamander), adult Rana sylvaticus (wood frog), and A. jeffersonianum (Jefferson salamander) that can easily be found breeding during late winter-early spring. Three amphibians that were expected but not observed in this survey were Hemidactylium scutatum (four-toed salamander), Eurycea longicauda (longtail salamander), and Bufo fowleri (Fowler's toad). Pseudacris triseriata feriarum (upland chorus frog) has been recorded in Shenandoah County near Massanutten Mt. (Tobey, 1985).

The historic land-use practices have no doubt adversely affected Massanutten's herpetofauna. Intensive forest clearing and the inevitable heavy erosion and thin soils probably reduced or even extirpated many woodland salamanders. Likewise, stream dwelling salamanders such as Gyrinophilus porphyriticus (Northern spring salamander) and Desmognathus fuscus (dusky salamander) would have been impacted by excess sediment in springs and streams. Reptiles such as Crotalus horridus could have survived by finding refugia in inaccessible rocky areas. Additionally, species possessing high dispersal rates and habitat plasticity such as Chelydra serpentina and Elaphe obsoleta (black rat snake) probably reinvaded after landuse abuses began to decline. To protect salamander populations, present land-use practices will require the development of the soil matrix, forest canopy, and woody debris on the forest floor (Mitchell et al., 1996). Amphibians and reptiles will also benefit from the protection of springs and seeps.

The information gathered in this survey can be used by land managers and biologists to develop conservation plans to protect critical habitats and populations of reptiles and amphibians. In order to accomplish this objective, additional surveys of the Massanutten region at different times of the year and habitats will help collect species not found in this survey. Surveys during late winter and early spring should be targeted to collect Ambystomids and early breeding frogs. Summer surveys will be needed to collect reptiles. Intensive surveys will be necessary to collect rare species. Future surveys will be conducted by the VHS to document the herpetofauna of this unique geological feature.

The following VHS members were instrumental in conducting the field portion of this study; Mitch Bowling, Kurt Buhlmann, David Dawson, Fred Frenzel, Todd Georgel, Ned Gilmore, Brian Hawley, Tyrone Hayes, Mike Hayslett, Bill Henley, Kathy Henley, McKeever Henley, Chris Hobson, Don Mackler, David McCarthy, Marty Martin, Joe Mitchell, Steve Perry, Preston Poore, Mary Rybitski, Abigail Sattler, Paul Sattler, Jim Scranton, Virginia Shepard, Terry Spohn, Lori West and Gordon Wilson. Thanks to John Coleman, Holden Mason, and Kenneth May, USFS, and Fred Fredzel, VDGIF, for their assistance on initial site selection. Thanks are also due to Greg Harvey, Chris Mattson, and Becky Wajda of the VDGIF-Fish and Wildlife Information System for producing the Massanutten region map, and Shay Garriock, Jess Jones, and Paul Sattler for editorial assistance.

Conant, R., and J.T. Collins. 1991. A Field Guide to Reptiles and

Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. 3rd ed. Houghton

Mufflin Co., Boston. 450 pp.

Mitchell, J.C. 1994. Reptile of Virginia. Smithsonian Institutional Press,

Washington D.C. 352 pp.

Mitchell, J.C., J.A. Wicknick, and C.D. Anthony. 1996. Effects of timber

harvesting practices on Peaks of Otter Salamander (Plethodon

hubrichti) populations. Amphibian and Reptile Conservation 1:15-19.

Tobey, F.J. 1985. Virginia's Amphibians and Reptiles, a Distributional

Survey. Virginia Herpetological Society, Purcellville. 114 pp.

USDA 1976. Massanutten Unit Plan & Draft Environmental Statement,

George Washington Forest. USDA-FS R8-DES-ADM 76-20. 185 pp.

Table 1. Locations of survey sites for the Virginia Herpetological Society's survey of the Massanutten region on May 4, 1996.

1-1-A Front Royal Fish Hatchery

1-1-B Front Royal Fish Hatchery

1-3-A Passage Creek bridge crossing at Elizabeth Furnace Rec. Area

1-3-B Elizabeth Furnace Recreation Area

1-5-A Bear Wallow, Signal Knob Trail

1-5-B Signal Knob Trail to Buzzard Knob Overlook

2-1-1 Stream near Srt 613 NW of FR 1869

2-1-2 Pond near Srt 613 NW of FR 1869

2-2 FR 1870 on W side Srt 613 and USFS pond on S side of FS 1870

2-3 Ponds and seeps at the end of FS 1953 on W side of Srt 613

2-4 Hazard Mill Recreational Area

2-5 Veach Gap Trail on W side of SRt 613

3-1 Peter's Mill Run, including bog 2.4 km miles on FS 1702

3-5 Wildlife Pond, Srt 758 tp FS 1702 0.8 km on right

3-6 Chalybeate Spring near Milford Gap

4-1 Seak Ford Landing on South Fork Shenandoah River

4-2 Ponds at intersection of Srt 717 and Srt 684 behind old buildings

5-1 Shale barrens - 0.8 km N of Edinburg Gap, Srt 675

5-2 Pond - 0.8 km from gate on left of FS 408

5-4 Pond - FS 374B 0.8 km past gate

5-7 Big Spring-Private church camp, N intersection of Srt 675 & 730

5-10 Headwaters of Mt. Run, 5.1 km N Shenandoah Co. line on FS 30

5-11 Road Crossing - 3.2 km N of FS 370 on FS374.

6-1 Wetlands - Ft. Valley Rd.(FS 274)

6-2 Pond at headwaters of Passage Creek.

6-3 Pond at edge of FS 274

6-4 Pond - Scothorn Gap, 0.8 km from FS 274

6-5 Wildlife pond near Turkey Pen Rd.

6-6 Wildlife pond between Turkey Pen Rd and FS 274

6-7 Wildlife pond at N end of Catback Mountain

6-8 Road crossing, 1.8 km N of Seven Fountains on Ft. Valley Rd.

7-1 Spring near Catherine Furnace, 0.8 km on FS 1618

7-1-A Spring near Catherine Furnace, 0.8 km on FS 1618

7-2-A Lower wetland above Pitt Spring, FS 375

7-2-B Middle wetland above Pitt Spring, FS 375

7-2-C Upper wetland above Pitt Spring FS 375

7-7 Road crossing, FS 375

7-7-A Gated Rd. near Cub Run and FS 375

 

Table 2. Summary of reptiles and amphibians of the Massanutten region. Species are classified those observed, those not observed but expected, and county records based on Tobey (1985), Mitchell (1994), and the VDGIF - Fish and Wildlife Information System.

Species Observed Not Observed

Agkistrodon contortrix mokason *

Ambystoma maculatum *

Ambystoma opacum *

Ambystoma jeffersonianum *

Bufo a. americanus *

Bufo fowleri *

Carphophis a. amoenus *

Chelydra s. serpentina *

Chrysemys p. picta *

Clemmys insculpta *

Crotalus h. horridus *

Desmognathus f. fuscus *

Diadophis punctatus edwardsii *

Elaphe g. guttata *

Elaphe o. obsoleta *

Eumeces fasciatus *

Eumeces inexpectatus *

Eurycea b. bislineata *

Eurycea l. longicauda *

Gyrinophilus p. porphyriticus *

Hemidactylium scutatum *

Heterodon platirhinos *

Hyla versicolor *

Lampropeltis t. triangulum *

Nerodia s. sipedon *

Notophthalmus v. viridescens *

Opheodrys a. aestivus *

Plethodon cinereus *

Plethodon cylindraceus *

Pseudacris c. crucifer *

Pseudacris triseriata feriarum *

Pseudemys rubriventris *

Pseudotriton r. ruber *

Rana catesbeiana *

Rana clamitans melinota *

Species Observed Not Observed

Rana palustris *

Rana sylvaticus *

Regina s. septemvittata *

Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus *

Sternotherus odoratus *

Terrapene c. carolina *

Thamnophis s. sirtalis *

Virginia valeriae *