(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN; BAT, HAWAIIAN; BAT and HOARY; 'OPE'APE'A
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Mammals
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - MAMMALIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CHIROPTERA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - VESPERTILIONIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - LASIURUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - CINEREUS, SEMOTUS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - LASIURUS CINEREUS SEMOTUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaiian Hoary Bat
Lasiurus cinereus semotus (H. Allen, 1890)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Mammal
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Mammalia
ORDER: Chiroptera FAMILY: Vespertilionidae
Lasiurus cinereus semotus is distinctive as the only bat known to
occur in the Hawaiian Islands, and it is isolated from other
subspecies in North America and South America (13,14). The hoary bat
as a species differs from other members of the genus in dental and
skeletal characteristics: talonoid on M3 larger; P4 single-rooted
instead of double rooted; hypocone on M1 and M2 smaller; humerus
relatively shorter; forearm relatively longer; first and middle
fingers relatively shorter (14). Hoary bats are generally large at 20
to 35 g and the color is mixed dark brownish and grayish, tinged with
white to produce the grizzled or "hoary" effect (14). The Hawaiian
form is distinctively small at 12 to 20 g and the color tends to be
reddish with the frosted appearance not well marked, or absent
(15,17,18). Shump and Shump give a complete synonomy of Lasiurus
cinereus (14). For further description see: (10,14,15,16).
Taxonomic status of the Hawaiian hoary bat has been confused in
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
the past, and the first recorded museum specimen was taken only in
1861 (15,17). Sanborn and Crespo established use of the current
designation of L.c. semotus in 1957 after making comparative
morphological studies of the three world populations (13). Recent
re-evaluation of the designated geographically separated subspecies,
employing discriminant analysis techniques, supports the established
close relationships of the nominate L.c. cinereus (Palisot de Beauvois
1796) of North America and L.c. villosissimus (G. St. Hillaire, 1806)
of South America, as subspecies, but suggests the wider divergence of
L.c. semotus from North American stock at the species level (06).
Until this study is formally reported, the Hawaiian hoary bat should
continue to be identified as Lasiurus cinereus semotus (H. Allen,
1890) (17). The lectotype, from Kaua'i, was catalogued in the U.S.
National Museum in 1887 (15,17). Photos of live specimens from the
island of Hawai'i have been printed (01,15,17). Series of specimens
are housed in various collections, such as U.S. National Museum (Wash.
D.C.), Bernice P. Bishop Museum (Honolulu, HI), and University of New
Mexico (Albuquerque)(13,14,17,21). Common name synonyms for the
Hawaiian hoary bat include Hawaiian bat, Hoary bat, bat, and the
Ancient Hawaiian name 'ope'ape'a (15,17).
Earliest record of a bat in Hawai'i is for December 8, 1816 when
the Kotzebue party shot one of several seen near Pearl Harbor, O'ahu
(17). The bat was recorded again in November, 1840 at Kealakekua Bay
on Hawai'i, when Titian Peale observed the species to be "quite
common" (15,16,17).
Baldwin (02) cites Perkins' estimate of the species, pertaining
to the 1890's, that the bat frequented the mountains of the island of
Hawai'i and was locally common in the uplands, and that he saw it very
rarely on Kaua'i and O'ahu. This estimate is perhaps correct except
for omission of lowland sightings which have characterized earlier as
well as more recent sightings. Baldwin (02) was the first modern
biologist to search systematically for the bat, in connection with his
primary interest in birds. During intermittent residence on Hawai'i
between 1938 and 1949, he collected about 20 records of bats,
including the observations of others. These records were well spread
through the year and included sites from sea level to 4023 m at the
summit of Mauna Loa. He found no place in the uplands where bats were
common, and he construed that high elevation sites could be reached
easily in migration or on normal daily flights.
The Bishop Museum in Honolulu has never assembled a true
collection of L.c. semotus but is the repositary of various and
miscellaneous items as have been sent there over the years.
A.C. Ziegler listed all the specimens accessioned up to February 9,
1983, recording a total of 28 numbers (21). Dates range from 1893 to
1982. Included are skeletal fragments of 4 bats demised over the
years in a dry cave on Hawai'i; and parts of 5 individuals from an
archaelogical dig at Barbers Point, O'ahu. Only two specimens are
standard study skins with measurements and biological data. Sanborn
and Crespo (13) in their work of 1957 were able to garner only 9
specimens for study, 2 from the Bishop Museum, and 7 from the U.S.
National Museum. The situation was considerably relieved in March
1975 when a series of 48 standard museum specimens and additional
skeletal parts were deposited in the museum of the Department of
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
Biology, University of New Mexico at Albuquerque, from collections
made on the island of Hawai'i in the 1960's.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) has been
designated as Endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of
1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawai'i.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Dept. of Land and Natural Resources
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Endangered Species Act, Chapt. 195D of
the Hawai'i Rev. Stat.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. The 1986 IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals list the status as indeterminate. The Hawaiian
hoary bat is listed by the U.S. on the Western Hemisphere Convention
Annex (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
This uncommon bat probably has no direct economic value. However
it may contribute to insect control in agricultural areas.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final listing
74/01/04:39 FR 01171/01178 - Relisting - Foreign and U.S. species
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Status Review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Notice of Review
87/07/07:52 FR 25522/25525 - Notice of 5-year Review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Residential
Industrial and Commercial Complexes
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Cropland and Pasture
Orchards, Groves, Vineyards, Nurseries,
Herbaceous Rangeland
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
Bays and Estuaries
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
Transitional Areas
Mixed Barren Land
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, tidal OW0
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Palustrine OW0
Palustrine
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The hoary bat has been observed in flight or at rest in
essentially every habitat type in the Hawaiian Islands. Such
distribution may be on a daily or seasonal basis, reflecting the
frequent change in character of the landscape as related to patterns
and recency of volcanic activity, vegetation and moisture, and the
modification of landscapes through human intervention (02,15,16,17,
18). As a widely ranging mobile flying mammal which frequently
forages even over near-shore waters, the hoary bat is difficult to
ascribe to typical habitat associations in the small land areas of the
islands.
Kepler and Scott (09) have made the only known analysis of
relationships to vegetation, based on 31 sightings incidental to an
intensive forest bird survey on Hawai'i. Their systematic work
suggests that the largest concentrations of bats are on the edges of
mesic forests, and less frequently in the forests themselves. Few
Habitat Associations - 1 observations of bats within forests may be biased by easier visibility
of bats in more open areas.
Bats were associated most frequently with alien vegetation (63.8
percent of 31 sightings). Few were in native vegetation and none were
in closed canopy forest. Bats in disturbed forest accounted for 38.0
percent of sightings. Bats seemed to favor forest edges or open
canopy forest with spacing between trees (09).
The needs of the hoary bat for its major shelter (as an
apparently solitary tree-roosting species) on a year round basis has
not been defined as yet. It may be that long term needs include
security found only in native forest types. For example, Fujioka and
Gon (07) observed the highest concentrations of bats ever recorded,
from 8 to 108 per evening (mean 55 +/- 27) passing an observation
station over a period of 10 evenings, issuing from mesic forest of a
natural area reserve. Overcast, fog or drizzle hampered observation
in about half of the periods. These remarkable flights should be
interpreted as daily dispersals for feeding, away from roosts.
On an annual basis, bats of the Hamakua Coast (island of Hawai'i)
appear to be resident with seasonal shifts between the uplands and
along-shore waters as locations for major activities. At several
observation sites from 305-792 m (1000 to 2600 ft) above sea level
3.2-8 km (2 to 5 miles inland) during 154 evenings in 1963-1965, bats
were least common in the 4 months December through March. At two sea
level sites, Waipi'o Valley and Honoka'a Landing, during 91 evenings
year around, bats were scarce in the months of May through August.
Bats tended to congregate at the shoreline from September to December,
and were regularly seen in the uplands from April through November.
The Hawaiian hoary bat is known to occur in three national parks
on the Hawaiian Islands. Bats have been found at roost in a wide
variety of trees, in fern clumps, in low scrub, in rock crevices,
buildings, and possibly in caves but not in the typical sense.
Skeletal fragments of two bats found in 1982 (age undetermined) in
Mahiehie Cave, 500 m (1640 ft) elevation at 'Ulupalakua Ranch on the
northern slope of Haleakala are adjacent to the area of present
occurrence (21).
Bats were observed on 63 percent of the 91 evenings at the coast,
and on 80 percent of the 154 evenings inland. Aggregation is denoted
along the shore (generally feeding or moving over the water, or over
beaches) by the mean figure of 6.2 bats seen per evening on which any
bats were detected; and a mean of 2.6 bats per evening when bats were
seen in the uplands. The largest number counted at the shore was 22
in one evening in a single sweep of offshore waters, using field
glasses, with an estimate of at least 35 in the area for that evening.
A maximum of 6 was counted on several evenings in the uplands, but at
several of the sites where observations were made. The bats were
notably dispersed in the uplands compared to those seen at the shore
(18).
A total of 89 locality records between 1938 when intermittent
systematic search for the hoary bat was begun, and up to 1985,
demonstrates present occurrence throughout much of the Island,
ranging from sea level to the summit caldera of Mauna Loa at 4023 m
(13,200 ft.)
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Bottomland
G Terrestrial Features: Caves, dry
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G Snags: Unknown
G Tree Cavities: Unknown
G Human Association: Farm ponds
G Human Association: Public residential parks
G Human Association: Abandoned buildings
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
A flying crepuscular/nocturnal mammal, the Hawaiian hoary bat has
been suspected of taking insects on the wing. Its most prominent
behavior when not in direct flight or movement through an area, is to
cruise and lunge in the typical fashion of bats whose food is volant
insects (02,18). Examination of stomach contents and of fecal pellets
confirms that the diet is exclusively insects. A study of 57 samples
from the Hamakua Coast, Island of Hawai'i, in 1963-1965, (conducted
throughout the year and from sea level to 792 m (2600 ft)), revealed
beetles as the most abundant food item; but many other kinds of
insects were eaten. Foods were as follows (given in percentage by
volume): Coleoptera (25.3), Homoptera (17.8), Hemiptera (13.8),
Lepidoptera (12.4), Isoptera (10.6), Diptera (8.4), Orthoptera (8.2),
and Hymenoptera (0.4). The bat is thus a generalized insectivore in
the region. It appears to exist entirely on volant insects. There is
no evidence of gleaning from foliage or from the ground. The
population is highly opportunistic, feeding not only on native insects
but also on introduced forms abundant in lowland agriculture (20).
A second study of pellets deposited in flight of bats feeding on
insects attracted to incandescent lights in ohi'a forest at a military
installation on Kaua'i 1280 m (4200 ft) elevation), showed the bats
were highly selective in dietary preferences, consuming largely moths.
Moths (Lepidoptera) dominated available prey in biomass, but not in
numbers; flies (Diptera) were twice as abundant as were moths. During
the 11 nights of the study, in August 1982, more than two-thirds of
the moths eaten were of two species of noctuids, and these were only a
small fraction of the insect fauna attracted to the lights. Body size
of the prey appeared to be an important factor in prey selection (03).
Strongly seasonal or temporal preferences in diet are only
partially revealed for the hoary bat in Hawai'i, but its adaptation
to, and preference for variously available insect populations is
demonstrated by the above investigations. Insects are an unlikely
limiting factor on Oah'u and Mau'i, sites where bats are in only
sparse numbers.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
There is sketchy and inferential information on these topics.
The hoary bat is a strong flier and there are abundant observations on
directional movement, which appears to be daily, between roosting
sites and feeding areas. In other cases, foraging begins in the
immediate vicinity as the bats leave their roosts. Annual cycles of
seasonal occupancy of particular areas rather than strict adherence to
home range or territory, seem likely. It is clear that bats tend to
defend local feeding sites, or feeding space, and will drive off
intruders. However, there may be general overlapping in the use of
air space, when there is a general aggregation of bats (18).
Telemetric monitoring should be employed to provide exact information
on these subjects.
PERIODICITY:
The hoary bat is a typical crepuscular/nocturnal species, but it
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
may be seen in flight occasionally at any hour of the day. After the
usual burst of activity at dusk, bats can be heard into the night.
Activity may extend between early darkness and about 10 PM (18).
Belwood and Fullard (03), in night time studies on Kaua'i near
floodlights, observed no particular peak in activity, and bats were
still active when they terminated observations at 2 AM. It is
probable that the individual bat may engage in several feeding bouts,
interspersed by periods of rest, during each nocturnal cycle.
On an annual basis, bats of the Hamakua Coast (island of Hawai'i)
appear to be resident with seasonal shifts between the uplands and
along-shore waters as locations for major activities. At several
observation sites from 305-792 m (1000 to 2600 ft) above sea level
3.2-8 km (2 to 5 miles inland) during 154 evenings in 1963-1965, bats
were least common in the 4 months December through March. At two sea
level sites, Waipi'o Valley and Honoka'a Landing, during 91 evenings
year around, bats were scarce in the months of May through August.
Bats tended to congregate at the shoreline from September to December,
and were regularly seen in the uplands from April through November.
Bats were observed on 63 percent of the 91 evenings at the coast,
and on 80 percent of the 154 evenings inland. Aggregation is denoted
along the shore (generally feeding or moving over the water, or over
beaches) by the mean figure of 6.2 bats seen per evening on which any
bats were detected; and a mean of 2.6 bats per evening when bats were
seen in the uplands. The largest number counted at the shore was 22
in one evening in a single sweep of offshore waters, using field
glasses, with an estimate of at least 35 in the area for that evening.
A maximum of 6 were seen at each of several observation sites. The
bats were notably dispersed in the uplands compared to those seen at
the shore (18).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The hoary bat in Hawai'i springs from strongly migratory stock.
The North American form has been found in the Bermudas, Iceland, and
other distant islands during the period of migration (14). In Hawai'i
the colonizing stock must have quickly suppressed migratory instincts,
or it may well have been lost at sea in such forays (17). Local
seasonal movement is established, on Hawai'i, but regular seasonal
migration between islands seems unlikely, based on the scarcity of
records of bats at any time of year on the several islands in the
402 km (250 mile) gap between the recognizably larger populations of
Kaua'i and Hawai'i. Even movement between adjacent islands is
undocumented (18).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Generally it is believed that the Hawaiian hoary bat needs the
shelter of trees for protection against wind, sun, and rain, and that
it is not colonial. Daily torpor in the roosting place is surmised to
be a means of energy conservation. Bats have been found at roost in a
wide variety of trees, in fern clumps, in low scrub, in rock crevices,
and in buildings: but not within caves in the typical sense of their
use by bats (02,10,15,16,17,18). Bats were observed regularly in July
through October to emerge each evening from closed canopy macadamia
nut orchards (18).
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
There apparently is no record of a bat in Hawai'i being found
together with its young. Females are observed in regular association
during the breeding season with vegetation types such as ornamental
and fruit-bearing trees used in urban landscaping, shelter belt trees
along drainage courses, in remnant native forest, and in orchards of
macadamia nuts, all in their general foraging and resting regime.
This suggests that such vegetational aggregates may provide their
needs at that time. Whether such sites are as good as, or better than
native forest is unknown (18).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
It is suspected that females are solitary except during the time
of breeding, as may be the case with males. Bats on the foraging
grounds are generally agonistic. Males appear to be fecund the year
around. Testis lengths of males ranged from 3.9 to 5.1 mm in January,
April, September and November. Abundant sperm were present in
September, November and January; and there were few in one July
example. A mixing of the population seems to occur during September
to December, and may be the period of breeding (18). Delayed
implantation is known to occur in continental populations (14). One
female may have been pregnant on April 26, and large fetuses appeared
in May and June.
PARENTAL CARE:
Bats were in lactation between June 22 and August 7, but none of
6 collected in this period carried their young. This suggests that
they are deposited soon after birth, at the roost, while the mother
forages (18). Shump and Shump record young in purposeful flight at
the age of 33 days (14). From September to December, in Hawai'i,
females were in various stages of post-lactation (18). The young are
evidently well developed at the time of fledging, and no noticeably
small bats are among those collected (18).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Information is lacking on what regulates populations of the hoary
bat in Hawai'i. The sex ratio in a sample of 68 bats taken at all
seasons of the year was 3 females : 1 male (18); a scarcity of males
is documented also for the North American population (14). Females
had a mean body weight of 16.55 g (range 10.4-22.3; SD 2.62;
S2 6.74; n=51); and males had a mean body weight of 13.91 g (range
11.2-16.2; SD 1.62; S2 2.47; n=17) (18). Food supplies appear to be
adequate. Females, but not males, may be fat at any time of year. Of
40 females rated for fat, 21 had no fat, 9 had slight fat, 8 had
moderate fat, 2 had excessive fat. Only one of 17 males was rated as
fat, with slight fat deposits (18).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
No predators of the hoary bat are known in Hawai'i. Several
parasites have been identified with the bat, but appear to exert no
strong influence over the populations.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
Mites: Olabidocarpus americanus
Pteracarus completus completus
Steatonysus furmani (05,11)
Tapeworms: Hymenolepis lasionycteridis (12)
Fleas: Fleas are not found on bats in Hawai'i (17).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
The hoary bat is a valuable resource for the study of aspects of
isolation and competition. Studies of predator/prey relationships
(bat and tympanate moths), and of echolocation of prey by the bat have
been done in Hawai'i (03,08). Such studies should be encouraged on
their own merit, and for the opportunities they may provide for
collection of biological and populational data on the bat in Hawai'i.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Because the hoary bat appears to occupy principally forested
lands, the loss of populations is attributed to reduction of tree
cover in historic times. The first notation of this was made only in
1942 (22). The original vegetation of O'ahu was destroyed before the
end of the 19th century by wood-cutting and grazing. Even though
reforestation and increase of ornamental vegetation via urbanization
has occurred, the bat remains rare on O'ahu (15,17,18). It is now
clear that 1500 years of Polynesian occupation had drastically reduced
lowland plant cover, but a concommitant loss of the bat, if it
occurred, is unrecorded (23). On the island of Hawai'i the bat
retains moderate numbers in lowland areas given over to agricultural
development and ubanization, with a mosaic of native forest still
remaining (18,20). The greatest concentration of the bat ever noted
in the record is in intact upland forest (07). Obviously, reasons for
decline, or sustained abundance, are not clear. It does seem further
reduction of native forest, or even the clearing of orchards and
escaped exotic cover, could have a detrimental effect on present
populations of the bat, if done on a large scale.
Man-made structures and man-caused conditions exert a "predation
pressure" on the Hawaiian hoary bat, as indicated by examples of a bat
impaled on barbed wire fence; bat with broken wing beneath guy wires;
bat struck wall and fell; bat stung on lip by alien Polistes wasp,
incapacitated (09,18). Such hazards will continue to exist within the
habitat of the bat. Illness within the animal may in some cases
predispose it to accident.
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
No recovery plan is scheduled for development at this time.
The management actions recommended for the recovery of the
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
Hawaiian hoary bat are discussed below.
Several authors have questioned the "endangered" status of the
Hawaiian hoary bat, which appears to occur in good numbers on the
island of Hawai'i and even seems to favor disturbed, rural, lowland
habitats that have become uninhabitable to most other native wildlife.
Yet, there has been no systematic attempt to quantify the bat's
population status on this or other of the Hawaiian Islands. Nor is
much known about the population biology of the Hawaiian bat.
Discouraged by this lack of information, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service has postponed writing a recovery plan for the species.
Clearly, the first priority of a recovery program would be to
evaluate the bat's status. Intensive surveys and studies of
population biology would determine the regional population size,
would identify population concentrations (including roosting sites)
and essential habitat, and would yield information required to
identify recovery needs. Obviously, bats should be protected from
harassment, particularly at roosting sites. Only one roosting cave
has been located, and it should be afforded the best protection
possible.
Currently, there are no ongoing recovery actions.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Armstrong, R.W. 1983. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. of Hawaii Press,
Honolulu. 238 pp.
02 Baldwin, P.H. 1950. Occurrence and behavior or the Hawaiian bat.
J. Mammalogy 31:455-456.
03 Belwood, J.J. and J.H. Fullard. 1984. Echolocation and foraging
behavior in the Hawaiian hoary bat, Lasiurus cinereus. Canadian
J. Zool. 62:2113-2120.
04 Bryan, E.H. 1955. The Hawaiian bat. Elepaio 15(11):63-64.
05 Dusbabek, F. 1973. A systematic review of the genus Pteracarus
(Acariformes:Myobiidae). Extrait de Acarologica 15:240-288.
06 Findley, J.S. and P.Q. Tomich. 1983. Morphological affinities of
the Hawaiian hoary bat. Unpubl. ms. Honokaa, HI. 7 pp.
07 Fujioka, K.K. and S.M. Gon. 1983. An unusual concentration of the
Hawaiian hoary bat in the South Kona District, island of Hawaii.
Unpubl. ms. 13 pp.
08 Fullard, J.H. 1984. Acoustic relationships between tympanate
moths and the Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus). J.
Comp. Physiol. 155:795-801.
09 Kepler, C.B. and J.M. Scott. 1983. Distribution and behavior of
the endangered hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) in Hawaii.
Unpubl. ms. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Honolulu, HI. 16 pp.
10 Kramer, R.J. 1971. Hawaiian land mammals. Charles E. Tuttle,
Rutland, VT. 347 pp.
11 McDaniel, B. and J.M. Tenorio. 1979. Olabidocarpus americanus
(Acari:Listrophoroidea:Chirodiscidae) from the Hawaiian hoary bat,
Lasiurus cinereus semotus, with description of the male. J. Med.
Entomology 15:180-182.
12 Rausch, R.L. 1975. Cestodes of the genus Hymenolepis Weinland,
1858 (sensu latu) from bats in North America and Hawaii. Canadian
J. Zool. 53:1537-1551.
13 Sanborn, C.C. and J.A. Crespo. 1957. El murcielago blanquizco
(Lasiurus cinereus) y sus subespecies Museo Argentino Ciencias
Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia" Bull. 4. 13 pp.
14 Shump, K.A. and A.U. Shump. 1982. Lasiurus cinereus. Amer. Soc.
Mamm., Mammalian Species 185:1-5.
15 Tomich, P.Q. 1969. Mammals in Hawaii: A synopsis and notational
bibliography. B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI. Spec. Pub. 57.
238 pp.
16 Tomich, P.Q. 1974. The hoary bat in Hawaii: Daredevil of the
volcanoes. Nat. Parks Conserv. Mag. 48:10-13.
17 Tomich, P.Q. 1986. Mammals in Hawaii: A synopsis and notational
bibliography. Rev. ed. B.P. Museum, Honolulu, HI. Spec. Pub.
76.384 pp.
18 Tomich, P.Q. 1962-1986. Unpubl. field notes. Honokaa, HI 96727.
19 U.S. Army Support Command, Hawaii. 1979. Draft installation
environmental impact statement. Loose-leaf publ. n.p.
20 Whitaker, J.O. and P.Q. Tomich. 1983. Food habits of the hoary
bat, Lasiurus cinereus, from Hawaii. J. Mammalogy 64:150-151.
21 Ziegler, A.C. 1983. Specimens referred to Lasiurus cinereus in
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
Bishop Museum collection, January 1983. Unpubl. list. Dept. of
Vert. Zool., Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI 96817.
22 Allen, G.M. 1942. Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Western
Hemisphere. Amer. Comm. Intl. Wildl. Protection. Spec. Publ. 11.
620 pp.
23 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: evidence for wholesale extinction by man before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Armstrong, R.W. 1983. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. of HI Press,
Honolulu. 238 pp.
02 Baldwin, P.H. 1950. Occurrence and behavior of the Hawaiian bat.
J. Mammalogy 31:455-456.
03 Belwood, J.J. and J.H. Fullard. 1984. Echolocation and foraging
behavior in the Hawaiian hoary bat. Lasiurus cinereus. Canadian
J. Zool. 62:2113-2120.
04 Bryan, E.H. 1955. The Hawaiian bat. Elepaio 15(11):63-64.
05 Dusbabek, F. 1973. A systematic review of the genus Pteracarus
(Acariformes:Myobiidae). Extrait de Acarologica 15:240-288.
06 Findley, J.S., and P.Q. Tomich. 1983. Morphological affinities of
the Hawaiian hoary bat. Unpubl. ms. Honokaa, HI 96727. 7 pp.
07 Fujioka, K.K., and S.M. Gon. 1983. An unusual concentration of
the Hawaiian hoary bat in the South Kona District, island of Hawaii
Unpubl. ms. 13 pp.
08 Fullard, J.H. 1984. Acoustic relationships between tympanate
moths and the Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus).
J. Comp. Physiol. 155:795-801.
09 Kepler, C.B., and J.M. Scott. 1983. Distribution and behavior of
the endangered hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) in Hawaii.
Unpubl. ms. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., HI. 16 pp.
10 Kramer, R.J. 1971. Hawaiian land mammals. Charles E. Tuttle,
Rutland, VT. 347 pp.
11 McDaniel, B., and J.M. Tenorio. 1979. Olabidocarpus americanus
(Acari:Listrophoroidea:Chirodiscidae) from the Hawaiian hoary bat,
Lasiurus cinereus semotus, with description of the male.
J. Medical Entomology 15:180-182.
12 Rausch, R.L. 1975. Cestodes of the genus Hymenolepis Weinland,
1858 (sensu latu) from bats in North America and Hawaii. Canadian
J. Zool. 53:1537-1551.
13 Sanborn, C.C., and J.A. Crespo. 1957. El murcielago blanquizco
(Lasiurus cinereus) y sus subespecies. Museo Argentino Ciencias
Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia" Bull. 4. 13 pp.
14 Shump, K.A., and A.U. Shump. 1982. Lasirurs cinereus. American
Soc. Mamm., Mammalian Species 185:1-5.
15 Tomich, P.Q. 1969. Mammals in Hawaii: A synopsis and notational
bibliography. B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI. Spec. Publ. 57.
238 pp.
16 Tomich, P.Q. 1974. The hoary bat in Hawaii: Daredevil of the
volcanoes. Natl. Parks Conserv. Mag. 48:10-13.
17 Tomich, P.Q. 1986. Mammals in Hawaii: A synopsis and notational
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species BAT, HOARY, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS051009
Date 14 MAR 96
bibliography. Rev. ed. B.P. Museum, Honolulu, HI. Spec. Publ.
76. 384 pp.
18 Tomich, P.Q. 1962-1986. Unpubl. field notes. Honokaa, HI 96727.
19 U.S. Army Support Command, Hawaii. 1979. Draft installation
environmental impact statement. Loose-leaf publ. n.p.
20 Whitaker, J.O., and P.Q. Tomich. 1983. Food habits of the hoary
bat, Lasiurus cinereus, from Hawaii. J. Mammalogy 64:150-151.
21 Ziegler, A.C. 1983. Specimens referred to Lasiurus cinereus in
Bishop Museum collection, January 1983. Unpubl. list. Dept. of
Vert. Zool., Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI 96817.
22 Allen, G.M. 1942. Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Western
Hemisphere. Amer. Comm. Intl. Wildl. Protection. Spec. Publ. 11.
620 pp.
23 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: evidence for wholesale extinction by man before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
References - 3