(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PRONGHORN, SONORAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PRONGHORN, SONORAN; ANTELOPE; ANTELOPE and AMERICAN; PRONGHORN
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Mammals
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - MAMMALIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - ARTIODACTYLA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ANTILOCAPRIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - ANTILOCAPRA,
SPECIES AND SSP - AMERICANA, SONORIENSIS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - ANTILOCAPRA AMERICANA SONORIENSIS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Sonoran Pronghorn
Antilocapra americana sonoriensis Goldman, 1945
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Mammal
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Mammalia
ORDER: Artiodactyla FAMILY: Antilocapridae
The taxonomy of the Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana
sonoriensis) is poorly understood as little taxonomic material is
available and the original description is based on only two specimens.
The subspecies was first described by Goldman (01) from a type
specimen taken near Costa Rica, Sonora, Mexico by Vernon Bailey and
Frederic Winthrop on December 11, 1932. It was described as being the
smallest subspecies of Antilocapra americana. Other differential
characteristics noted were a general paler coloration and distinctive
cranial features. The major subspecific differences noted in the
cranial features of A. a. sonoriensis were: 1) skull decidedly
smaller, 2) frontal depression shallower, 3) premaxillae less extended
posteriorly along median line, and 4) auditory bullae more flattened,
less projecting below level of basioccipital.
Paradiso and Nowak (02) examined the skulls of three juvenile and
one adult male Sonoran pronghorns that had been collected near Caborca
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
in northwestern Sonora, Mexico, in February 1969. They found the four
specimens to have marked similarities to the holotype of
A. a. sonoriensis and to differ from the specimens of subspecies
americana, mexicana, and peninsularis in the same characteristics as
the holotype. They concluded that although there are still
insufficient specimens to allow a complete appraisal, the four newly
acquired skulls provide strong support for the continued recognition
of A. a. sonoriensis as a distinct subspecies. They also concluded
that the taxon is more distinct from the other subspecies of pronghorn
than any of them are from each other. The species Antilocapra
americana Ord is known by the common names American antelope or
pronghorn.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) has been
designated as Endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act
of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found
including the State of Arizona.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
BLM -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control (43 CFR 4140). Also
responsible for management/recovery on Bureau of Land
Management lands.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Arizona
DESIGNATED STATUS: Group II, a species or subspecies whose
continued presence is now in jeopardy,
extirpation is probable without recovery
efforts.
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Arizona Game and Fish Department
STATE STATUTE: Arizona Revised Statute Sec. 17-23(B)7
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Sonoran pronghorn is listed as endangered by the Mexican
Departamento De Fauna Silvestre. It is protected by a cooperative
agreement between the USFWS and the Mexican Departamento De Fauna
Silvestre. It is listed in the 1986 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Animals as Endangered, and it is also listed by CITES (Appendix 1).
The Sonoran pronghorn is listed by the U.S. in the Convention on
Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western
Hemisphere Annex (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The Sonoran pronghorn were formerly hunted and provided a source
of food for early settlers. They now provide visitors to government
land in southwestern Arizona occasional opportunities for viewing.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001 - Listed as Endangered, Preact 1
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Relisted as Endangered, Preact 6
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Relisted as Endangered, Preact 7
79/05/21:44 FR 29565/29577 - 5-year review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - 5-year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25522/25525 - Notice of 5-year review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Mixed Rangeland
Mixed Barren Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The present range of the Sonoran pronghorn falls within the lower
Sonoran desert life zone (04). There are several major subdivisions
within this life zone of which the two northernmost occur in southern
Arizona. These are the Arizona upland desert which is basically a
paloverde-saguaro association and the lower Colorado desert which is
primarily a creosote bush-bursage association (03).
The paloverde-saguaro association is comprised of small-leaved
trees, Sclerophyllus shrubs and numerous cacti. The best development
of this association is found on rocky hills, bajadas, and other
coarse-soiled slopes typical of the major mountain ranges of
southwestern Arizona. Primary desert trees are foothill paloverde
(Cercidium microphyllum), ironwood (Olneya tesota), mesquite (Prosopis
juliflora), catclaw (Acacia gregii), crucifixion thorn (Holocantha
emoryii), and smoketree (Dalea spinosa). The major cacti are saguaro
(Carnegia gigantea) and barrel (Ferocactus wislizeni). One of two
shrubs, triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosia deltoidea) or brittle bush
(Encelia farinosa) is almost always present in the understory as are
many annual and perennial forbs and grasses (03).
The creosote bush-bursage association is composed mainly of
shrubs. The plant dominants are creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) and
bursage (Ambrosia dumosa). Trees are usually lacking except for those
found in the rocky riparian drainageways. This shrub community
characterizes less rocky areas of lower relief such as the extensive
valleys between the mountain ranges (03).
Sonoran pronghorn habitat falls under the southwestern or Arizona
climatic pattern (05), which is characterized by winter rains, spring
drought, summer rains, and fall drought. Almost one half of the
normal yearly precipitation (3-15 inches) falls from July-September.
This precipitation, usually in the form of intense localized
thunderstorms, is associated with deep currents of moisture moving
across southern Arizona from the Gulf of Mexico. A precipitation
maximum occurs during the winter when storms from the Pacific Ocean
sweep across southern Arizona via southern California. These storms
usually produce the heaviest, most widespread and effective
precipitation.
Heat and aridity are dominant climatic characteristics of Sonoran
pronghorn habitat. During the hottest part of the year (July-August)
daily maximums exceed 110 degrees F and temperatures of 120 degrees
are not uncommon. The cooler winter months find daytime temperatures
reaching the middle 60s and 70s and nighttime temperatures remaining
above freezing (03).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
HERBIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Evergreen Shrubs-Leaves/Twigs
General Cactus-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Parasitic/Epiphytic Plants
General Cactaceae
General Deciduous Trees-Leaves/Twigs
General Deciduous Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Detailed life history studies have not been done on the
Sonoran pronghorn, so little is known (03, 06). Throughout the years
various individuals have made observations on their diet in southern
Arizona and Mexico. Monson (07) concluded that pronghorn on Cabeza
Prieta Game Range subsisted mainly on the remains of annual and
biennial plants, especially forbs. He also noted that they will
browse paloverde, honey mesquite, and ironwood. Monson (07) and
Lumholtz (08) both wrote that pronghorn relish the pendant fruits of
the chain cholla (Opuntia fulgida). Hornaday (09) noted pronghorn of
the pinacate region eating an annual plantain (Plantago spp.). Carr
(10) observed pronghorn eating cholla cactus, brittle bush, paloverde,
and plantain during the spring.
Arizona Game and Fish Department (11) studied the diet of Sonoran
pronghorns by analyzing fecal pellets collected on Cabeza Prieta NWR.
From October 1977 through September 1978, efforts were made to locate
fresh pronghorn feces. Most samples were located as a result of
seeing one or more pronghorn and tracking them for a distance, often a
mile or more. Fresh fecal material could usually be found by this
method. Because of the extensive area involved and the low density of
antelope, few samples were collected. Several incidental samples
from 1974 through 1977 were also available, as were several samples
collected in northern Mexico by the Departamento De La Fauna
Silvestre. Samples were not available from every month of the year
(July, August, November, and December missing).
Feces were analyzed microscopically and compared with reference
slides from plants collected on the refuge. Twenty random microscope
fields were read on each of 20 slides for each fecal sample collected.
Frequency of occurrence of each identifiable species was converted to
percent relative density.
The diet of the Sonoran pronghorn, using all the fecal samples
available from 1974-78, consisted of 69 percent forbs, 22 percent
shrubs, 7 percent cacti, and O.4 percent grasses. Other pronghorn in
the southwestern U.S. were found to have very similar diets. Beuchner
(12) in Texas found that the pronghorn utilized 66.6 percent forbs,
29.7 percent browse (including both shrubs and cacti), and 3.7 percent
grasses.
Forbs appeared to be more important in the spring and in
September and October. Late winter and spring rains in the area
initiate the germination of numerous annual forbs, and Sonoran
pronghorn use them extensively. Shrubs are most important in the
winter as evidenced by a high density of shrub species in the January
diet. Few grass species are abundant on the Cabeza Prieta, and the
pronghorn there do not appear to select for grasses. This correlates
well with the general observations found in many studies in which
pronghorns were usually found to be browsers. Cacti are utilized in
some quantities before and after germination of most of the forbs.
Gaura/Camissonia and Dalea mollis were taken in the greatest
relative densities. Gaura and Camissonia, two genera in the evening
primrose family, are indistinguishable with the microscopic technique
employed. These genera were very important in February and March,
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
decreasing in importance in April. Dalea mollis was the most
important in April through June, with some fragments still present in
the feces in September. D. mollis is a mat-forming forb that grows on
rocky soils and remains green for a relatively long period. Pronghorn
were observed feeding on it in May and September. Kallstroemia
californica and Tidestromia lanuginosa were forbs highly utilized
during the fall. Euphorbia spp. was taken in April, May, and
September in significant quantities. The species of Euphorbia found
in the fecal material were mat formers and were often abundant when
other forbs were not. The ubiquitous and exotic Plantago insularis
was utilized in the greatest quantities in February through March.
Many different shrub species were important throughout the year.
Krameria spp. was found mostly in feces collected in January, yet was
present throughout the year in smaller quantities. Both honey
mesquite and mistletoe (Phoradendron californicum) were important in
January and October. The latter is a plant parasite that often grows
on honey mesquite and paloverde in large quantities. Pronghorn were
observed eating mistletoe several times. Paloverde was present in all
months' samples. Hymenoclea monogyra was utilized from February to
May but was taken most in March. Eriogonum spp. was used throughout
the year. Several species of Eriogonum are abundant in the Cabeza
Prieta, and the pronghorn may utilize some of each. Ambrosia dumosa
was important in February and April.
Opuntia spp. was important in summer and winter. Although it is
difficult to determine microscopically, much of the cholla present in
the feces may be the fruits of chain cholla. The fruits are
persistent and may provide food when little else is available. Cacti
may not be utilized when forbs are available. No opuntia was found in
the October samples from Mexico. Possibly forbs were in lesser
abundance in Mexico where the pronghorn's range is also grazed by
livestock.
Pronghorn on Cabeza Prieta NWR appear to select for forbs when
they are available. They still take forbs in some quantity in each
month studied so they must consume some dried and withered forbs when
green forbs are not available. Shrubs and cacti are utilized most
heavily during the dry months when the annual forbs are less
plentiful. After winter rains, an abundance of annuals appears in the
late winter and early spring, which pronghorn extensively utilize
(11). Much more information is needed, and should be forthcoming from
an intensive study being undertaken by the Arizona Game and Fish in
the fall of 1983 with joint funding from U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Department of Air Force, Arizona Game and Fish Department,
and Chicar Safari Foundation (06).
Sonoran pronghorn's ability to vary their diet with food
availability enables them to survive in the dry desert environment.
The large number of plant species consumed attests to this ability,
and indicate the opportunistic nature of the Sonoran pronghorn (11).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
No information is available on home range. Radio-collared
pronghorn will be used in the upcoming major study to better
understand Sonoran pronghorn movements and seasonal use of the
available habitats (06).
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
In contrast to the northern subspecies of pronghorn, the Sonoran
pronghorn does not congregate in large groups at any time of the year.
This may be a survival response to marginal habitat. Many small
groups are better able to ensure the survival of the population during
periods of high mortality. If small herds are lost throughout the
range, no reduction or shrinking of occupied habitat occurs. However,
if large herds are lost, significant areas of range are vacated and
may not be reoccupied. Small herds would also be better able to
utilize limited food resources (11).
PERIODICITY:
Sonoran pronghorn are basically crepuscular, particularly during
the heat of May, June, and July, when shaded air temperatures reach
120 degrees F while ground temperatures reach 180 degrees F (11).
There are seasonal movements of pronghorn to areas with good forb
production in spring and fall (11).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Seasonal movements have been noted but not fully understood.
Radiotelemetry studies to be started in the fall of 1983 will provide
much needed information in this area (06).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Sonoran pronghorn lie in shaded places during the heat of the day
(11). Further information needed and upcoming from pending research
(06).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Information is needed on seasonal movements to determine where
Sonoran pronghorn are during the breeding season (06).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Birth normally occurs during the first or second week of March.
The earliest fawn observed was seen on 7 March 1980 and was judged to
be less than a week old using Einarsen's (13) criteria. Fawns judged
to be less than a month old have been observed as late as mid-April
(11). Assuming the gestation period of the Sonoran pronghorn to be
240 days, identical to that published for A. a. americana (14), peak
breeding activity would occur about the first week of July.
Information on breeding behavior, i.e., harems, territories (15),
is presently not available (06).
PARENTAL CARE:
Until more is known, it must be assumed that parental (mother)
care in Sonoran pronghorn is similar to that described for
A. a. americana (14,15).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Nelson (16) estimated a Sonoran pronghorn population of 595 in
Sonora and 105 in Arizona in 1925. Nichol (17) estimated 60 antelope
in southwestern Arizona in 1941 not including those found on the
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument. Halloran (18) said there were
probably less than 100 Sonoran pronghorn in 1956. Villa (19)
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
estimated over 1000 antelope in northwestern Mexico in 1957.
The 1968 population estimate for Sonoran pronghorn in Arizona was 50
(07). Observations compiled by personnel of the Arizona Game and Fish
Department over 10 years (approx. 1973-1983) indicate a population in
Arizona of more than 50 but less than 150. The population in Mexico
in 1983 was believed to number between 200-350 (11). In a 1985 report
by the Instituto de Ecologia, AC to Direccion de Flora/Fauna
Terrestres, EDUE in Mexico they estimated the population range was
33-93 Sonoran pronghorn in Mexico with 63 being the mean estimate
(22).
The coyote (Canis latrans) is the major predator in Sonoran
pronghorn habitat. Simmons (20) examined 580 coyote fecal deposits
from Cabeza Prieta NWR for ungulate remains. Five, less than
0.8 percent, contained pronghorn remains. Although low, this
predation rate could be a limiting factor when considering a
population comprised of only 100-150 individuals. During the 1960's
the refuge was subject to intensive predator control using compound
1080 with no recorded benefit on the pronghorn population.
Three instances of mortality have been recorded; one buck fawn
drowning in the Wellton-Mohawk canal in 1970 (an adult buck was
rescued and released in 1979), a road killed doe in Mexico in 1975,
and a dead mature buck (cause unknown) found on the Organ Pipe Cactus
National Monument in 1972. Also, in 1969, 4 Sonoran pronghorn skulls
of unknown origin were seized by U.S. Fish and Wildlife agents from a
Tucson, AZ taxidermist (11).
The goal of the recovery plan is a population of 300 pronghorn in
Arizona (5 year average), or whatever is feasible for the habitat if
research proves the carrying capacity to be less than 300.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
In addition to the coyote (as described above in "POPULATION
BIOLOGY"), bobcats (Lynx rufus), mountain lions (Felis concolor), and
golden eagles (Aguila chrysaetos), are all known predators of
pronghorn and occur in Sonoran pronghorn habitat.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Sport Hunting/Fishing
Existing Sport Hunting/Fishing
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The Sonoran pronghorn has become endangered as a result of losses
in habitat and numbers. A unique and poorly understood member of the
fauna associated with the Sonoran desert, the Sonoran pronghorn is
one of the few large mammals recognized as being endangered in the
United States today. Several reasons have been presented for this
decline. The most popular is over-hunting. Unregulated hunting
undoubtedly contributed to the initial decline; however, with the
protection that has existed for the past 40 years the pronghorn
should have recovered if hunting was indeed the primary factor. The
probable reason for the decline is loss of habitat. The drying of
major rivers and overgrazing significantly altered Sonoran pronghorn
habitat in southwestern Arizona by the 1930's. Why these rivers dried
is a major study in itself; but briefly, this resulted partly from
heavy overgrazing which speeded up runoff. Also, pumping of ground
water to support large irrigation projects near these rivers lowered
the water table, thus reducing the flow. However, the death blow to
the Gila River was the numerous, large dams built on the upper
drainage systems to support irrigation and power projects and to
satisfy the water needs of a multiplying human population (21). This
habitat has yet to recover despite the fact that most of the area is
made up of three large public land withdrawals (Cabeza Prieta NWR,
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, and Barry M. Goldwater Gunnery
Range).
The only significant loss of habitat in recent years in Arizona
occurred on the Papago Reservation where severe overgrazing by cattle
coupled with recurrent drought resulted in the loss of large areas
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
of pronghorn habitat. It is believed that economic exploitation of
habitat (grazing, agriculture) and that poaching still cause numerical
and habitat losses in Mexico (03).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Sonoran Pronghorn Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, NM. 20 pp.
The primary objective of the recovery plan is to maintain
existing numbers and distribution of Sonoran pronghorn while
developing techniques which will result in a U.S. population of 300
animals (average for a five year period) or numbers determined
feasible for the habitat. This will be accomplished by first
undertaking an intensive study of the ecology of the subspecies from
which will be determined such things as home range, distribution,
natality, mortality. If the population can be raised to 300 (or
feasible number for habitat) in the existing habitat, it can be
downlisted without transplants. If the studies indicate limiting
factors that can be modified, such as water or food distribution,
predation, human disturbance, etc., management efforts will be
directed at them. The historic range will also be surveyed for
possible transplant sites, if necessary, and the transplanted
population and habitat will be monitored until determined successful.
Existing herds will also be continually monitored (01). A step-down
outline of recovery of the species follows:
1. Maintain present population.
A) Monitor U.S. population.
B) Assist Mexico in monitoring the Mexico population.
C) Protect and manage known antelope habitat.
D) Determine taxonomic status.
2. Increase existing population.
A) Determine life history.
B) Determine natality.
C) Investigate inter- and intra-specific competition.
D) Ascertain biological parameters.
3. Increase population within existing habitat to numbers determined
feasible.
A) Modify limiting factors as identified
1. Predator control
2. Increase food supply (by habitat manipulation)
3. Increase water supply (by controlling current water
levels and flows, and by construction of watering
holes)
4. Reduce effect of disease and parasites
5. Minimize human disturbance
a. Modify fencing
b. Control access
c. Control poaching
d. Reduce harassment
e. Contain development
f. Discourage increased human use
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
6. Eliminate permit and trespass livestock grazing
B) Establish captive breeding population to provide transplant
stock.
4. Reestablish in historic habitat (by transplanting wild and captive
breed individuals).
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
References
*****REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE*****
01 Goldman, E.A. 1945. A new pronghorn antelope from Sonora. Proc.
Biol. Soc. Washington. 58:3-4.
02 Paradiso, J.L. and R.M. Nowak. 1971. Taxonomic status of the
Sonoran pronghorn. J. Mamm. 52:855-858.
03 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Sonoran Pronghorn Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, NM. 20 pp.
04 Shreve, F. and I.L. Wiggins. 1964. Vegetation and flora of the
Sonoran Desert. Vol. I. Stanford Univ. Press, Palo Alto, CA.
05 Sellers, W.D. and R.H. Hill. 1973. Arizona climate 1931-72. U.
Arizona Press, Tucson.
06 Carley, C. 1983. Pers. comm. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.
Albuquerque, NM 87103.
07 Monson, G. 1968. The desert pronghorn. The Desert Bighorn
Council 1968 Transactions.
08 Lumholtz, K.S. 1912. New trails in Mexico. Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York, NY.
09 Hornaday, W.T. 1908. Camp-fires on desert and lava. Charles
Scribner's Sons, New York, NY.
10 Carr, J.N. 1970. Endangered species investigations: Sonoran
pronghorn. Arizona Game and Fish Dept. Project W-53-21, Work Plan
8, Job 1. Phoenix, AZ.
11 Arizona Game and Fish Department. 1981. The Sonoran pronghorn.
Special Rept. 10. 54 pp.
12 Beuchner, H.K. 1950. Life history, ecology, and range use of the
pronghorn antelope in Trans-Pecos, Texas. Am. Mid. Nat. 43:
257-354.
13 Einarsen, A.S. 1948. The pronghorn antelope and its management.
Wildl. Manage. Inst., Wash.,D.C.
14 Asdell, S.A. 1946. Patterns of mammalian reproduction. Comstock
Publ. Co., Ithaca, NY.
15 Kitchen, D.W. 1974. Social behavior and ecology of the pronghorn.
Wildl. Mono. 38.
16 Nelson, E.W. 1925. Status of the pronghorn antelope, 1922-1924.
USDA Bull. 1346:64.
17 Nichol, A.A. 1941. Game reconnaissance of southwestern Arizona,
south of the Gila River. Unpubl. File Rept., Arizona Game and Fish
Dept., Yuma, AZ.
18 Halloran, A.P. 1957. A note on the Sonoran pronghorn. J. Mamm.
38:423.
19 Villa, R.B. 1958. Partial report of Prof. Bernardo Villa R.
concerning an investigation of wild sheep And antelope in northern
Mexico in the first quarter of 1958. 7 pp.
20 Simmons, N.M. 1969. The social organization, behavior, and
environment of the desert bighorn sheep on the Cabeza Prieta Game
Range, Arizona. Unpubl. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. Arizona, Tucson.
21 New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. 1972. Symposium on:
Rare and endangered wildlife of the southwestern United States,
September 22-23, 1972, Albuquerque, NM. NM Dept. of Game and Fish,
Santa Fe.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PRONGHORN, SONORAN
Species Id ESIS052001
Date 14 MAR 96
22 Gonzales-Romero, A., and La Fon Terravas, A. 1985. Present status
of Pronghorn "Antilocapra americana" in Mexico: a 1985 survey.
Organ Pipe Cactus Natl. Monument, AZ. 30 pp.
*****REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY*****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Sonoran Pronghorn Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, NM. 17 pp.
02 Davis, G.P. 1973. Man and wildlife in Arizona; the presettlement
era, 1823-1864. M.S. Thesis, U. Ariz., Tucson.
03 Hall, R.E., and K.R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America.
The Ronald Press, New York, NY.
References - 2