(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - MANATEE, WEST INDIAN;MANATEE, FLORIDA;MANATEE, CARIBBEAN;COW and SEA;MANATEE
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Mammals
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - MAMMALIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - SIRENIA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - TRICHECHIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - TRICHECHUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - MANATUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - TRICHECHUS MANATUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
West Indian Manatee
Trichechus manatus Linnaeus, 1758
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Mammal
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Mammalia
ORDER: Sirenia FAMILY: Trichechidae
Manatees are obligate marine mammals with a robust body that is
fusiform and slightly compressed dorsoventrally. The gray skin is
thick, tough, and nearly hairless. The head is not visibly distinct
from the body. Two valvular nostrils are located on the top of the
thick, truncated muzzle. Small eyes are located on the side of the
head. The mouth is small with large terminal lips that are very
mobile and bear short stiff bristles. There are no external ears.
The forelimbs are modified into flippers and there are no hind limbs.
The tail is modified into a horizontally flattened, spatulate paddle.
Adults attain 3.5 m in length and weigh up to 1000 kg. Neonates are
about 1.2 m in length and weigh about 25 kg (01).
Presently, there is no controversy as to the classification of
the West Indian (Caribbean or Florida) manatee, Trichechus manatus
Linnaeus, 1758, to the level of species. Historically, two subspecies
were recognized: T. m. latirostris in Florida and T. m. manatus in the
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
Caribbean. Although the validity of these taxa have not been
generally accepted (73), recently Domning and Hayek (76) completed a
revision of the subspecies and concluded that there are two
distinguishable races based on morphological features.
Excellent photographs of free-ranging manatees can be found in
numerous popular magazines (03,04,05,06). The following institutions
have series of manatee skeletons in their research collections:
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco; Carnegie Museum,
Pittsburgh; Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; Florida State
Museum, Gainesville; Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Los
Angeles; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge; Museum of
Paleontology and Museum of Zoology, Ann Arbor; Museum of Southwestern
Biology, Albuquerque; Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley; National
Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.; Royal Ontario Museum,
Toronto.
Several species accounts are available for the West Indian
manatee (07,02,08,099,10,01).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
U.S. Misc. Caribbean Islands; Federal Endangered
Florida; Federal Endangered
Florida; Officially Listed
Georgia; Federal Endangered
Georgia; State Recognized
Puerto Rico; Federal Endangered
Puerto Rico; State Listed
Virgin Islands; Federal Endangered
E: Federal Endangered
Marine Mammal
Commercial/consumption
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) has been designated
an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found including the
southeaster U.S.A., Caribbean Sea, and South America. Critical
Habitat has been designated in Brevard, Broward, Charlotte, Citrus,
Clay, Collier, Dade, De Soto, Duval, Flagler, Hillsborough, Indian
River, Lake, Lee, Manatee, Martin, Monroe, Nassau, Orange, Putnam,
Palm Beach, St. Johns, St. Lucie, Sarasota, Seminole, and Volusia
Counties in Florida (50 CFR 17.95(a)).
The manatee (Trichechus manatus) is also protected by the Marine
Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (50 CFR 18; PL 92-522; 86 Stat. 1027;
16 U.S.C. 1361, 1362, 1371-1384, 1401-1407), as amended.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Alabama, Louisiana
UNOFFICIAL LIST: (AL) List of Vertebrate Wildlife of Alabama
1984.
(LA) The Heritage Program is developing a list
at the present time.
STATE: Georgia and North Carolina
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (GA) Department of Natural Resources,
(NC) Wildlife Resources Commission.
STATE STATUTES: (GA) Endangered Wildlife Act, 1973; Game & Fish
Code, GA Laws 1977, Page 396; GA Code Annotated,
Sec. 45-101 et seq.
(NC) Administrative Code, Sec. .0003 and .0004.
STATE: Florida, Mississippi, South Carolina, Texas, and
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (FA) Game and Freshwater Fish Commission,
(MS) State Game and Fish Commission,
(SC) Wildlife and Marine Resources
Commission,
(TX) Parks and Wildlife,
(PR) Department of Natural Resources.
STATE STATUTES: (FL) Florida Endangered and Threatened Species
Act, Article IV, Sec. 9, FL Constitution, and
the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act, 1978;
(MS) Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation
Act of 1972, Sec. 49-5-101-119;
(SC) Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation
Act of 1973, SC Code of Laws, Sec. 28-105, and
28-129 through 28-131;
(TX) Texas Parks and Wildlife Code, Sec.
127.30.09.001-.006;
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
(PR) Organic Act of the Dept. of Nat. Resour. of
the Commmonwealth of PR; Title 3, Chapter 10 of
the Laws of PR, Annotated (L.P.R.A),
Regulations to Govern the Management of
Threatened and Endangered Species in the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1985.
STATE: Virgin Islands
DESIGNATED STATUS: None.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The West Indian manatee is listed in CITES I, the IUCN Red Data
Book (1966), and the Western Hemisphere Convention Annex (1967).
Mexico is currently evaluating the status of this species.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The manatee has been, and occasionally still is, used as food.
Some believe that the animal may be useful to control aquatic weeds.
Status - 3 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Transportation, communications, and Util
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, lower perennial UB
Riverine, lower perennial RB
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB5
Riverine, lower perennial AB4
Riverine, lower perennial AB3
Riverine, lower perennial AB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB1
Riverine, tidal UB
Riverine, tidal RB
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal EM
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal AB5
Riverine, tidal AB4
Riverine, tidal AB3
Riverine, tidal AB2
Riverine, tidal AB1
Lacustrine, littoral UB
Lacustrine, littoral RB
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral EM
Lacustrine, littoral AB5
Lacustrine, littoral AB4
Lacustrine, littoral AB3
Lacustrine, littoral AB2
Lacustrine, littoral AB1
Lacustrine, limnetic UB
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic AB5
Lacustrine, limnetic AB4
Lacustrine, limnetic AB3
Lacustrine, limnetic AB2
Lacustrine, limnetic AB1
Estuarine, intertidal EM
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, subtidal UB
Estuarine, subtidal RF
Estuarine, subtidal RB
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB5
Habitat Associations - 1
Habitat Associations - 2
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, subtidal AB4
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Estuarine, subtidal AB1
Marine, subtidal UB
Marine, subtidal RF
Marine, subtidal RB
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
Marine, subtidal AB1
Riverine, lower perennial UB
Riverine, lower perennial RB
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB5
Riverine, lower perennial AB4
Riverine, lower perennial AB3
Riverine, lower perennial AB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB1
Riverine, tidal UB
Riverine, tidal RB
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal EM
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal AB5
Riverine, tidal AB4
Riverine, tidal AB3
Riverine, tidal AB2
Riverine, tidal AB1
Lacustrine, littoral UB
Lacustrine, littoral RB
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral EM
Lacustrine, littoral AB5
Lacustrine, littoral AB4
Lacustrine, littoral AB3
Lacustrine, littoral AB2
Lacustrine, littoral AB1
Lacustrine, limnetic UB
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic AB5
Lacustrine, limnetic AB4
Lacustrine, limnetic AB3
Lacustrine, limnetic AB2
Lacustrine, limnetic AB1
Estuarine, intertidal EM
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, subtidal UB
Estuarine, subtidal RF
Estuarine, subtidal RB
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB5
Estuarine, subtidal AB4
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Estuarine, subtidal AB1
Marine, subtidal UB
Marine, subtidal RF
Marine, subtidal RB
Habitat Associations - 3
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
Marine, subtidal AB1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Manatees in Florida occupy a wide range of near-shore and inland
habitats, including shallow coastal water, bays, estuaries, lagoons,
river mouths, rivers, spring runs, and lakes connected to the coast by
navigable waterways. They also occupy dredged canals, the
Intracoastal Waterway, and artificial (dammed) lakes (25,36,11).
Manatees generally require water that is at least one meter in depth
(29). They occupy fresh, brackish, and salt water habitats (25,29,
36).
Manatees require warm water (37). When water temperatures drop
below about 20 degrees C they begin to move into warmer water, often
forming large aggregations in natural springs and industrial outfalls
during the winter (38,25,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47). When water
temperatures drop below about 16 degrees C, manatees have been
reported to stop feeding (28).
Manatees are herbivores, relying almost exclusively on aquatic
macrophytes for food (29,48,49). Since submergent and natant aquatic
plants are restricted to shallow inland and near-shore waters where
light penetration is adequate, manatees are usually also restricted to
these habitats (11).
Although manatees occupy estuarine and marine habitats, there is
a considerable body of evidence that suggests that they require
freshwater to drink (33). In estuarine and marine habitats manatees
are often seen drinking from freshwater sources, such as industrial or
sewage outfalls and water hoses. They are often seen in association
with river mouths (25,50,33).
Manatees seem to favor coastal habitats that are protected from
heavy wave action (25,29,33). There is no documentation as to their
preference for clear or turbid water (20). They seem to be equally at
home in still or moderately flowing water, such as effluent canals,
tidal creeks, spring runs, and large slow-flowing rivers (25,29,11).
Manatees will occupy highly urbanized areas as long as excessive
harassment or mortality does not occur and there is a source of food
in the vicinity (39,51,44,46,47).
In summary, not much is known about the specific features of
preferred manatee habitat. It is thought that they prefer warm (>20
degrees C), calm, and protected waters that are fresh, or associated
with freshwater, and are in proximity to an abundant supply of aquatic
food plants (11).
Habitat Associations - 4 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
HERBIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Algae
General Floating aquat. plant
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Vascular Plants-Submerged Nonwoody
General Roots/Tubers/Rhizomes-Herbaceous
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Algae
General Floating aquat. plant
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Vascular Plants-Submerged Nonwoody
General Roots/Tubers/Rhizomes-Herbaceous
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The feeding ecology of manatees in Florida is not well
understood. They are known to eat a very wide range of emergent,
natant, and submergent aquatic and marine plants (29,48,52,49,53).
They have preferences for some species of plants (40), but these
preferences may vary with geographical area (29,11). There is limited
evidence that manatees may prefer freshwater or estuarine vegetation
over marine angiosperms (33). In certain areas along the east coast
of Florida manatees have been observed to excavate the rhizomes and
roots of marine angiosperms (54). Manatees are reported to eat a wide
variety of terrestrial plant parts that fall from vegetation
overhanging water (40,11). Manatees are thought to spend about 5 to 8
hours a day feeding (29,40) and consume about 4 to 11% of their body
weight per day in food (49,57,56). Despite much optimism, manatees
have not proven to be efficient agents for the natural control of
aquatic vegetation (56).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Manatees are non-territorial and do not form stable, close-knit
social grops or herds (29,26,58). They are seen most frequently in
groups of two or more individuals, however, sightings of lone animals
are seen more frequently than any other single group size (60,32,59).
In Florida, manatees range over fairly large areas during the summer,
perhaps covering up to 200 linear kilometers of river or coastline.
Males tend to move over larger areas than females (29,40,11). During
the winter large aggregations (up to 279 animals) form at artificial
and natural warm water refuges (25,39). There can be a 90 percent
return rate of the same individuals to the same winter refuges from
year to year (40,33,11). The only known long-term (up to four years)
social bond is between a cow and her calf (29,26,11). Long-distance
movements of about 600 km by individuals in Florida have been
documented (61), and there are numerous cases of extralimital
sightings suggesting movements well over 600 km (32,33,11).
PERIODICITY:
Hartman (29) said there was no circadian periodicity in manatees
at Crystal River, Florida, however, there is some evidence that at
warm water refuges during the winter manatees move in and out of the
sites on a daily cycle (40,43,11). Many manatees undertake a seasonal
north-south migration on the east coast of Florida in response to
seasonal changes in water temperature (62,50,32,33). There is some
evidence that there is a slight peak in breeding activity in northern
Florida during the summer months (16,11).
MIGRATION:
An unknown proportion of the manatees along the eastern coast of
Florida undertake a seasonal migration, moving north during the summer
and back south during the winter (62,50,32). This migration may
involve regular movements of over 600 km between winter refuges in
southern Florida (Riviera Beach, Ft. Lauderdale, and Port Everglades
power plants) and summering areas in the lower St. Johns River (59,61,
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
11). Spring and summer influxes in manatee numbers along the central
east coast relate to this pattern of movements (63,46,50,59). A
pattern of movements similar to that on the east coast has not been
documented for the west coast of Florida. Manatees do, however, make
short (ca. 100 km) seasonal movements from the winter refuges at
Crystal and Homosassa to the mouths of other rivers along the
northwestern coast of Florida (33,11).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Manatees do not require or use any form of cover/shelter, in the
normal sense. See Habitat Associations Narrative.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Manatees do not require any specific areas for mating (29,11).
Pregnant females apparently seek secluded, shallow waters for
parturition (29,40,11).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Female manatees have an estrous period of about two weeks, when
they are followed constantly by a dynamic herd of up to 17 males (29,
40,11). Females apparently mate with several males during estrus
(29). Gestation is from 12 to 14 months long (64,11). Births occur
during all months of the year, although in northern Florida there is
a slight peak during the summer (16,11). Litter size is normally one,
but twins are occasionally seen (29,11). Calf dependence on the
mother normally lasts for up to 24 months (29,11). Females can
become sexually mature as early as four years old, and mature females
give birth every two to three years (11). There is no information on
the life-time reproductive output of females, although they may live
as long as 50 or 60 years (11).
PARENTAL CARE:
The only long-term, stable bond in manatees is that between a cow
and her highly precocial calf (29,26,11). Weaning normally occurs
between nine and 24 months of age, although a cow and calf may
continue to associate with each other for several more years (29,11).
Adoption of orphaned calves and/or nursing of consecutive calves is
very rare, but has been observed (29,11).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The population of manatees in Florida has been estimated to be at
least 1200 individuals (74). There are an estimated 60 to 100
manatees in Puerto Rico (65,11,72). Methods of estimating manatee
populations are being refined and developed (66,67,68,69,75). Current
limiting factors are not known, although it is assumed to be a
combination of low reproductive potential, high human-caused
mortality, and possibly habitat degradation due to unplanned human
development of coastal habitats in Florida (11). Population numbers
and changes are not known, however, it has been assumed that the
number of manatees has decreased since historical times (13). Yearly
mortality in Florida is estimated to average at least 100 animals per
year (17,11). The average proportion of first-year calves in the
population is about 10%, with a range of about 5 to 15% (11).
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Manatees have no natural predators (29). They have casual or
opportunistic associations with little blue herons, Florida caerulea,
(70) and symbiotic associations with several fishes (71). Manatees
are host to numerous endoparasites (11) and several ectoparasites (29,
11). The most important causal relationship that manatees have with
another species is with Homo sapiens (17).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Regulating Water Temperature
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse Boating
Existing Boating
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Water Temperature Alteration
Existing Water Temperature Alteration
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Regulating Water Temperature
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse Boating
Existing Boating
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Water Temperature Alteration
Existing Water Temperature Alteration
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Manatees are long-lived with a low reproductive potential (11).
The result of having this type of life history is that manatees are
susceptible to depletion when their numbers are greatly reduced due to
catastrophic natural or human-caused mortality.
Historically, manatees in Florida were hunted for their meat
(12). As early as 1893 it was recognized that manatees were being
overexploited and protective laws were imposed (12). It is generally
believed that subsistence hunting (poaching) during the depression of
the 1930's and World War II greatly reduced manatee numbers (12).
With the development of a conservation ethic in the 1960's and the
passage of stronger protective laws in the 1970's (13,14), manatees
have not been killed by poaching so much as by other direct and
indirect conflicts with people. However, there is evidence that
manatees are still taken by gill-net fishermen in Puerto Rico for meat
(72). These conflicts have been well documented since the 1970's (15,
16,17,18). Human-caused mortality includes collisions with water
vessels (19,20,21), entrapment in water control structures (22,18),
entanglement in fishing gear (23,24), vandalism, (25,26,17), and
poaching (25,11). These deaths account for about 33% of the known
mortality (17,18), which includes deaths from disease (27,18),
cold-stress (28,18), congenital defects (18), reproductive
complications at birth (11), and red-tide poisoning (18,11). In
Florida, manatees have no known predators except people (29). Although
manatees are infected with several species of endoparasites (11),
these normally do not seriously affect the health of the animals (18).
There is also no indication that capture stress is a health problem
for manatees (30), as has been suggested for dugongs (31).
Human-caused mortality is concentrated in those areas of Florida
where human water-related activities (e.g., power boating) are
intense, such as in Jacksonville, Cape Canaveral, Miami, Ft. Myers,
and the Intracoastal Waterway along the east coast (20,17).
Modifications to manatee habitat by humans are widespread.
However, it is difficult to assess the net effects of these changes on
manatees. Some alterations are clearly negative, others positive, but
most have positive and negative features. Coast development,
including land clearing and dredge and fill operations, destroys
coastal ecosystems (14), but may also create new habitat for manatees
(11). Industrial warm water outfalls create winter refuges that
probably have allowed manatees to expand their distribution (25,32),
but also may expose these animals to cold-stress during exceptionally
cold winters (28,17,18). The introduction of exotic aquatic
vegetation has probably increased the carrying capacity of some areas
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
(29,33), but also exposes manatees to potential contaminants during
weed control activities (34). It is generally agreed that every
geographical area must be individually assessed to determine how past,
present, and future habitat modifications have or will affect the
local manatee residents (35,14).
Excessive concentrations of contaminants from agricultural
pesticides, aquatic herbicides, and industrial wastes do not seem to
pose any threat to manatees, eventhough these contaminants are present
within manatee habitat. However, accumulations of copper derived
from certain aquatic herbicides may prove to be detrimental to the
manatee (34). Oil spills have not occurred within manatee habitat so
any detrimental effects are yet unknown.
In some areas, such as Blue Spring State Park, Riviera Beach
Power Plant, Ft. Myers Power Plant, Homosassa River, and Crystal
River, people trying to swim with manatees, or fish where large
aggregations of manatees occur, may be chasing the animals away from
the warm water that they are seeking (13). This type of harassment
will probably become more acute as more people try to interact with
manatees (14).
Perhaps the most critical future concern for the conservation of
manatees throughout their range in the southeastern U.S. is the
alteration of their habitat through the cumulative effects of
unplanned coastal development, particularly boating facilities. If
manatees are to have a long-term future in the U.S. this issue must be
addressed immediately (11).
APPROVED PLAN (2 populations):
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Recovery Plan for the West
Indian Manatee. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 46 pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Recovery Plan for the Puerto
Rico Population of the West Indian (Antillean) Manatee (Trichechus
manatus manatus L.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA.
28 pp.
The primary objective in the recovery of the West Indian manatee
is to reestablish and maintain optimum sustainable populations in
natural habitats throughout the manatee's historic range in the United
States. To accomplish this primary objective there are several
sub-objectives. They are:
1. Minimize human-caused injuries and mortalities to manatees.
Rescue and rehabilitate sick, injured, or orphaned manatees. Minimize
mortality from boat/barge collisions, flood control structures, and
poaching. Continue and expand, if necessary, salvage operations of
dead and injured manatee.
2. Minimize alteration, degradation, or destruction of habitat used
by manatees and monitor its status. Adverse habitat alteration may
result from human use of water resources and industrial and
residential development. Evaluate potential hazards such as coastal
zone development, outer continental shelf oil and gas development,
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
toxicants, dredging, siltation and power plant failures. Identify
and protect essential habitats. Protection may be in the form of
easements, management agreements, acquisition, protection plans, etc.
Identification of important habitats includes determining daily and
seasonal movements, food habits, and other biological habitat
components.
3. Minimize harrassment of manatees from boat/barge traffic, divers
and swimmers.
4. Monitor the status of manatee populations.
5. Information and education and law enforcement are key aspects to
all recovery activities.
The salvage/necropsy program was turned over to the state
effective July 1, 1985.
Aerial census techniques are being refined to better estimate
manatee numbers. Survey techniques developed on the Caloosahatchee
River are being tested at Crystal River NWR.
The winter of 1985-1986 is the second field season of radio
telemetry work in the Caloosahatchee River. To date there are 18
manatees radio-collared. Three of the 18 are affixed with radio
collars that are being monitored by satellite.
Plans are to acquire a site in the Kings Bay area for a FWS
interpretative center and refuge office. The USFWS, FDNR and Suwannee
River Water Management District are cooperating on efforts to acquire
manatee habitat in the Homosassa, Crystal, and Suwannee Rivers.
Work continues in developing a manatee scar-pattern catalogue to
assist in identifying individual manatees.
Management Practices - 5 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
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02 Husar, S.L. 1978. Trichechus manatus. Amer. Soc. Mammal., Mamm.
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03 Sleeper, B. 1980. The case of the mistaken manatees. Adventure
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05 Reynolds, J. 1979. The semisocial manatee. Natural Hist.
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06 Shane, S. 1983. Manatees and power plants. Sea Frontiers
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08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Selected Vertebrate
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09 Brook VanMeter, V. 1982. The West Indian manatee in Florida.
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10 Odell, D.K. 1982. West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus. Pages
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11 Sirenia Project, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Unpublished data.
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perspective. M.A. Thesis, Univ. Michigan. 78 pp.
13 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. West Indian Manatee
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14 Packard, J.M. 1983. Proposed Research/Management Plan for Crystal
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15 Beck, C.A., R.K. Bonde, and D.K. Odell. 1981. Manatee mortality
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16 Irvine, A.B., D.K. Odfell, and H.W. Campbell. 1981. Manatee
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17 O'Shea, T.J., C.A. Beck, R.K. Bonde, H.I. Kochman, and D.K. Odell.
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References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
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18 Buergelt, C.D., R.K. Bonde, C.A. Beck, and T.J. O'Shea. In
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20 Kinnaird, M.F. 1983. Site-specific analysis of factors
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21 Kinnaird, M.F. 1983. Evaluation of potential management
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Site-specific reduction of boat/barge mortality research report
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22 Odell, D.K. and J.E. Reynolds. 1979. Observations on manatee
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23 Forrester, D.J., F.H. White, J.C. Woodard, and N.P. Thompson.
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24 Beusse, D.O., E.D. Asper, and S.W. Searles. 1981. Some causes of
manatee mortality. Pages 98-101. IN: R.L. Brownell, Jr., and K.
Ralls, eds., The West Indian manatee in Florida. Proceedings of a
workshop held in Orlando, FL, 27-29 March 1978. Fla. Dep. Nat.
Resour., Tallahassee, FL. 157 pp.
25 Hartman, D.S. 1974. Distribution, status, and conservation of the
manatee in the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife. Serv., Natl.
Fish Wildl. Lab. Contract Rep. No.14-16-0008-748. NTIS Publ. No.
PB81-140725. 246 pp.
26 Reynolds, J.E. 1981. Aspects of the social behavior and herd
structure of a semi-isolated colony of West Indian manatees,
Trichechus manatus. Mammalia 45:431-451.
27 Buergelt, C.D. and R.K. Bonde. 1983. Toxoplasmic
mengoencephalitis in a West Indian manatee. J. Am. Vet. Med.
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28 Campbell, H.W. and A.B. Irvine. 1981. Manatee mortality during
the unusually cold winter of 1976-1977. Pages 86-91. IN: R.L.
Brownell, Jr., and K. Ralls, eds., The West Indian manatee in
Florida. Proceedings of a workshop held in Orlando, FL, 27-29
March 1978. Fla. Dep. Nat. Resour., Tallahassee, FL. 157 pp.
29 Hartman, D.S. 1979. Ecology and behavior of the manatee
(Trichechus manatus) in Florida. Am. Soc. Mammal. Spec. Publ.
No.5. 153 pp.
30 O'Shea, T.J., G.B. Rathbun, E.D. Asper, and S.W. Searles. In
manuscript. Tolerance of West Indian manatees to capture and
handling. Submitted to Biol. Conserv.
31 Marsh, H. and P.K. Anderson. 1983. Probable susceptibility of
dugongs to capture stress. Biol. Conserv. 25:1-3.
32 Rathbun, G.B., R.K. Bonde, and D. Clay. 1982. The status of the
West Indian Manatee on the Atlantic Coast north of Florida. Pages
152-165. IN: R.R. Odom and J.W. Guthrie, eds., Proceedings of
the Symposium on Nongame and Endangered Wildlife, Georgia Dep. Nat.
Res., Game Fish Div. Tech. Bull. WL5. 179 pp.
33 Powell, J.A. and G.B. Rathbun. 1984. Distribution and abundance
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
of manatees along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
Northeast Gulf Sci. 7:1-27.
34 O'Shea, T.J., J.F. Moore, and H.I. Kochman. In press. Contaminant
concentrations in manatees in Florida. J. Wildl. Manage.
35 Rose, P., J. Baker, D. Peterson. 1981. Comprehensive Work Plan
for the west Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus). U.S. Dept. Int.,
Fish and Wildlife Service. 45 pp.
36 Irvine, A.B. and H.W. Campbell. 1978. Aerial census of the West
Indian manatee, Trichechus manatus, in the southeastern United
States. J. Mammal. 59(3):613-617.
37 Irvine, A.B. 1983. Manatee metabolism and its influence on
distribution in Florida. Biol. Conserv. 25:315-334.
38 Moore, J.C. 1956. Observations of manatees in aggregations. Am.
Mus. Novit. 1811:1-24.
39 Rose, P.M. and S.P. McCutcheon. 1980. Manatees (Trichechus
manatus): Abundance and distribution in and around several Florida
power plant effluents. Final Rep., Florida Power and Light Co.,
P.O. 31534-86626. 128 pp.
40 Bengtson, J.L. 1981. Ecology of manatees (Trichechus manatus) in
the St. Johns River, Florida. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Minn. 126 pp.
41 Raymond, P.W. 1981. Manatees (Trichechus manatus): Abundance and
distribution around several Florida power plant effluents. Annual
Rep., Fla. Power and Light Co., P.O. No. 31534-82511. 62 pp.
42 McGehee, M.A. 1982. Manatees (Trichechus manatus): Abundance and
distribution in and around several Florida power plant effluents
during the winter of 1981-82. Annual Report, Fla. Power and Light
Co., P.O. No. 31534-86419. 67 pp.
43 Kochman, H.I., G.B. Rathbun, and J.A. Powell. 1983. Use of Kings
Bay, Crystal River, Florida, by the West Indian manatee (Trichechus
manatus). Pages 60-124. IN: J.M. Packard, ed., Proposed
Research/Management Plan for Crystal River Manatees. Vol. III.
Compendium. Technical Rep. No.7. Fla. Coop. Fish Wildl. Res.
Unit, Univ. Fla., Gainesville, FL. 346 pp.
44 Reid, J.P. 1983. A survey of the 1983 winter manatee aggregation
at the Tice Power Plant, Lee County, Florida. Appendix B. IN: G.
B. Rathbun, J.A. Powell, and J.P. Reid, Movement of manatees
(Trichechus manatus) using power plant effluents in southern
Florida. Report, Fla. Power and Light Co., P.O. No. 88798-87154.
23 pp + 5 appendices.
45 Reynolds, J.E. 1983. Distribution and abundance of West Indian
manatees (Trichechus manatus) around selected Florida power plants
following winter cold fronts. Final Report, Fla. Power and Light
Co., P.O. No. 71527-88609. 75 pp.
46 Shane, S.H. In press. Manatee use of power plant effluents in
Brevard County, Florida. Fla. Scientist.
47 Weigle, B.L. 1983. A survey of West Indian manatees, (Trichechus
manatus) at warm water effluents in Tampa Bay, Florida.
Appendix B. IN: G.B. Rathbun, J.A. Powell, and J.P. Reid,
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effluents in southern Florida. Report, Fla. Power and Light Co.,
P.O. No. 88798-87154. 23 pp + 5 appendices.
48 Campbell, H.W. and A.B. Irvine. 1977. Feeding ecology of the West
Indian manatee Trichechus manatus Linnaeus. Aquaculture
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
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Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
12:249-251.
49 Best, R.C. 1981. Foods and feeding habits of wild and captive
Sirenia. Mamma. Rev. 11:3-29.
50 Shane, S.H. 1983. Abundance, distribution, and movements of
manatees (Trichechus manatus) in Brevard County, Florida. Bull.
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51 Kinnaird, M.F. and J. Valade. 1983. Manatee use of two power
plant effluents on the St. Johns River in Jacksonville, Florida.
Site-specific reduction of manatee boat/barge mortality research
report No.1, Fla. Coop. Fish. Wildl. Res. Unit, Univ. Fla. 62 pp.
52 Domning, D.P. 1980. Feeding position preference in manatees
(Trichechus) J. Mammal. 61:544-547.
53 Reynolds, J.E. 1981. Behavior patterns in the West Indian
manatee, with emphasis on feeding and diving. Florida Sci.
44:233-241.
54 Packard, J.M. In press. Impact of manatees (Trichechus manatus)
on seagrass communities in eastern Florida. Acta. Zool. Fennica.
55 Sguros, P. 1966. Use of the Florida manatee as an agent for the
suppression of aquatic and bankweed growth in essential inland
waterways. Res. Rept. and Ext. Prop., Central and Southern Florida
Flood Control Board. 57 pp + 5 Appendices.
56 Etheridge, K., G.B. Rathbun, J.A. Powell, and H.I. Kochman. 1985.
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57 Bengtson, J.L. 1983. Estimating food consumption of free-ranging
manatees in Florida. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:1186-1192.
58 Rathbun, G.B. and T.J. O'Shea. In press. The manatee's simple
social life. IN: D. McDonald (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Mammals.
Facts on File, NY.
59 Kinnaird, M.F. 1983. Aerial census of manatees and boats over the
lower St. Johns River and the Intracoastal Waterway in northeastern
Florida. Site-specific reduction of manatee boat/barge mortality
research report No.2, Fla. Coop. Fish and Wildl. Res. Unit, Univ.
Fla. 56 pp.
60 Irvine, A.B., J.E. Caffin, and H.I. Kochman. 1982. Aerial surveys
for manatees and dolphins in western peninsular Florida. Fish.
Bull. 80(3):621-630.
61 Rathbun, G.B., J.A. Powell, and J.P. Reid. 1983. Movements of
manatees (Trichechus manatus) using power plant effluents in
southern Florida. Rept., Florida Power and Light Co., P.O. No.
88798-87143. 23 pp + 5 Appendices.
62 Moore, J.C. 1951. The range of the Florida manatee. Quart. J.
Fla. Acad. Sec. 14:1-19.
63 Tiedemann, J.A. 1980. Behavior and ecology of the west Indian
manatee, Trichechus manatus, in Turkey Creek, Palm Bay, Brevard
County, Florida. M.S. Thesis. Florida Institute of Technology.
188 pp.
64 Dekker, D. 1980. Pre- and Postnatal behaviour in the manatee
(Trichechus manatus) in captivity. Aquatic Mammals 8:21-26.
65 Powell, J.A., D.W. Belitsky, and G.B. Rathbun. 1981. Status of
the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) in Puerto Rico. J.
Mammal. 62(3):642-646.
66 Eberhardt, L.L. 1982. Censusing manatees. Manatee Population
References - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
Research Rept. No.1. Fla. Coop. Fish and Wildl. Res. Unit. Univ.
Fla., Gainesville, FL. 18 pp.
67 Packard, J.M. and R. Mulholland. 1983. Analysis of manatee aerial
surveys: A compilation and preliminary analysis of winter aerial
surveys conducted in Florida between 1977 and 1982. Manatee Pop.
Res. Rept. No.2., Tech. Rept. No.8-2. Fla. Coop. Fish Wildl. Res.
Unit. Univ. Fla., Gainesville, Fla. 119 pp.
68 Packard, J.M. and R. Mulholland. 1983. Sample sizes estimates: A
preliminary analysis of sample sizes required for mark-recovery and
mark-resighting studies of manatees (Trichechus manatus) in
Florida. Manatee Pop. Res. Rept. No.4., Tech. Rept. No.8., Fla.
Coop. Fish Wildl. Res. Unit., Univ. Fla., Gainesville, Fla. 14 pp.
69 Packard, J.M., R.C. Summers, and L.B. Barnes. 1983. Correction
factors for observability of manatees during aerial surveys.
Manatee Pop. Res. Rept. No.3., Tech. Rept. No.8., Fla. Coop. Fish
Wildl. Res. Unit, Univ. Fla., Gainesville, FL. 10 pp.
70 Scott, M.D. and J.A. Powell. 1982. Commensal feeding of little
blue herons with manatees. Wilson Bull. 94(2):215-216.
71 Powell, J.A. In press. Observations of cleaning behavior in the
bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), a freshwater centrarchid. Copeia.
72 Rathbun, G.B., T. Carr, N. Carr, and C.A. Woods. 1985. The
distribution of manatees and sea turtles in Puerto Rico, with
emphasis on Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. Final Report for
Installation Planning Division, Naval Facilities Engineering
Command, U.S. Navy, Norfolk, VA 23511. 83 pp.
73 Lowery, G.H., Jr. 1974. The Mammals of Louisiana and its Adjacent
Waters. Louisiana University Press. 565 pp.
74 Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Marine Research.
Unpublished data.
75 Packard, J.M. 1985. Development of manatee aerial survey
techniques. Manatee Population Research Report No. 7. Technical
Report No.8-7. Florida Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research
Unit. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 68 pp.
76 Domning, D. and L.C. Hayek. 1986. Interspecific and intraspecific
morphological variation in manatees (Sirenia:Trichechidae). Mar.
Mamm. Sci. (In press).
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Husar, S.H. 1977. The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Wildl. Res. Rept. 7, Wash., D.C.
22 pp.
02 Irvine, A.B. 1983. Manatee metabolism and its influence on
distribution in Florida. Biol. Conserv. 25:315-334.
03 Moore, J.C. 1951. The range of the Florida manatee. Quart. J.
Fla. Acad. Sci. 14:1-19.
04 Hartman, D.S. 1974. Distribution, status, and conservation of the
manatee in the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife. Serv., Natl.
Fish Wildl. Lab. Contract Rep. No.14-16-0008-748. NTIS Publ. No.
PB81-140725. 246 pp.
05 Irvine, A.B. and H.W. Campbell. 1978. Aerial census of the West
Indian manatee, Trichechus manatus, in the southeastern United
References - 5 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
States. J. Mammal. 59(3):613-617.
06 Rose, P.M. and S.P. McCutcheon. 1980. Manatees (Trichechus
manatus): Abundance and distribution in and around several Florida
power plant effluents. Final Rep., Florida Power and Light Co.,
P.O. 31534-86626. 128 pp.
07 Layne, J.N. 1965. Observations of marine mammals in Florida
Waters. Bull. Florida St. Mus., Biol. Sci. 9:131-181.
08 Irvine, A.B., M.C. Scott, and S.H. Shane. 1979. A study of the
West Indian manatee, Trichechus manatus, in the Banana River and
associated waters, Brevard County, Florida. Final Rep., J.F.
Kennedy Space Center, NASA, Florida. Contract No. CC-63426A.
44 pp. + 4 appendices.
09 Leatherwood, S. 1979. Aerial survey of the bottlenosed dolphin,
Tursiops truncatus, and the West Indian manatee, Trichechus
manatus, in the Indian and Banana rivers, Florida. Fish. Bull.
77:47-59.
10 Odell, D.K. 1979. Distribution and abundance of marine mammals in
the waters of the Everglades National Park. Pages 673-678. IN:
Proceedings of Conf. Sci. Res., National Park Service Proc. Series
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11 Patton, G.W. 1980. Studies of the West Indian manatee (Trichechus
manatus) in Tampa Bay (Florida). Unpublished Technical Report of
Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL. 52 pp.
12 Bengtson, J.L. 1981. Ecology of manatees (Trichechus manatus) in
the St. Johns River, Florida. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Minn. 126 pp.
13 Packard, J.M. 1981. Abundance, distribution and feeding habits of
manatees (Trichechus manatus) wintering between St. Lucie and Palm
Beach inlets, Florida. Final Report, Jacksonville Endang. Spec.
Off., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Contract No.
14-16-0004-80-105. 139 pp.
14 Irvine, A.B., J.E. Caffin, and H.I. Kochman. 1982. Aerial surveys
for manatees and dolphins in western peninsular Florida. Fish.
Bull. 80(3):621-630.
15 Rathbun, G.B., R.K. Bonde, and D. Clay. 1982. The status of the
West Indian Manatee on the Atlantic Coast north of Florida. Pages
152-165. IN: R.R. Odom and J.W. Guthrie, eds., Proceedings of
the Symposium on Nongame and Endangered Wildlife, Georgia Dep. Nat.
Res., Game Fish Div. Tech. Bull. WL5. 179 pp.
16 Shane, S.H. 1983. Abundance, distribution, and movements of
manatees (Trichechus manatus) in Brevard County, Florida. Bull.
Mar. Sci. 33:1-9.
17 Kinnaird, M.F. 1983. Aerial census of manatees and boats over the
lower St. Johns River and the Intracoastal Waterway in northeastern
Florida. Site-specific reduction of manatee boat/barge mortality
research report No.2, Fla. Coop. Fish and Wildl. Res. Unit, Univ.
Fla. 56 pp.
18 Powell, J.A. and G.B. Rathbun. 1984. Distribution and abundance
of manatees along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
Northeast Gulf Sci. 7:1-27.
19 Moore, J.C. 1956. Observations of manatees in aggregations. Am.
Mus. Novit. 1811:1-24.
20 Sirenia Project, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Unpublished data.
21 Hartman, D.S. 1979. Ecology and behavior of the manatee
References - 6 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
References - 7 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
(Trichechus manatus) in Florida. Amer. Soc. Mammalogists Special
Publ. 5. 153 pp.
22 Powell, J.A. and J.C. Waldron. 1981. The manatee population in
Blue Spring, Volusia County, Florida. Pages 41-51. IN: R.L.
Brownell, Jr., and K. Ralls, eds., The West Indian Manatee in
Florida, Fla. Dep. Nat. Resour., Tallahassee, FL. 157 pp.
23 Powell, J.A. 1981. The manatee population in Crystal River,
Citrus County, Fla. Pages 33-40. IN: R.L. Brownell, Jr., and K.
Ralls, eds., The West Indian Manatee in Florida, Fla. Dep. Nat.
Resour., Tallahassee, FL. 157 pp.
24 Kochman, H.I., G.B. Rathbun, and J.A. Powell. 1983. Use of Kings
Bay, Crystal River, Florida, by the West Indian manatee (Trichechus
manatus). Pages 60-124. IN: J.M. Packard, ed., Proposed
Research/Management Plan for Crystal River Manatees. Vol. III.
Compendium. Technical Rep. No.7. Fla. Coop. Fish Wildl. Res.
Unit, Univ. Fla., Gainesville, FL. 346 pp.
25 Kinnaird, M.F. and J. Valade. 1983. Manatee use of two power
plant effluents on the St. Johns River in Jacksonville, Florida.
Site-specific reduction of manatee boat/barge mortality research
report No.1, Fla. Coop. Fish. Wildl. Res. Unit, Univ. Fla. 62 pp.
26 Raymond, P.W. 1981. Manatees (Trichechus manatus): Abundance and
distribution around several Florida power plant effluents. Annual
Rep., Fla. Power and Light Co., P.O. No. 31534-82511. 62 pp.
27 McGehee, M.A. 1982. Manatees (Trichechus manatus): Abundance and
distribution in and around several Florida power plant effluents
during the winter of 1981-82. Annual Report, Fla. Power and Light
Co., P.O. No. 31534-86419. 67 pp.
28 Reynolds, J.E. 1983. Distribution and abundance of West Indian
manatees (Trichechus manatus) around selected Florida power plants
following winter cold fronts. Final Report, Fla. Power and Light
Co., P.O. No. 71527-88609. 75 pp.
29 Shane, S.H. In press. Manatee use of power plant effluents in
Brevard County, Florida. Fla. Scientist.
30 Reid, J.P. 1983. A survey of the 1983 winter manatee aggregation
at the Tice Power Plant, Lee County, Florida. Appendix B. IN: G.
B. Rathbun, J.A. Powell, and J.P. Reid, Movement of manatees
(Trichechus manatus) using power plant effluents in southern
Florida. Report, Fla. Power and Light Co., P.O. No. 88798-87154.
23 pp + 5 appendices.
31 Weigle, B.L. 1983. A survey of West Indian manatees, (Trichechus
manatus) at warm water effluents in Tampa Bay, Florida.
Appendix B. IN: G.B. Rathbun, J.A. Powell, and J.P. Reid,
Movements of manatees (Trichechus manatus) using power plant
effluents in southern Florida. Report, Fla. Power and Light Co.,
P.O. No. 88798-87154. 23 pp + 5 appendices.
32 Powell, J.A., D.W. Belitsky, and G.B. Rathbun. 1981. Status of
the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) in Puerto Rico. J.
Mammal. 62(3):642-646.
33 Rathbun, G.B., T. Carr, N. Carr, and C.A. Woods. 1985. The
distribution of manatees and sea turtles in Puerto Rico, with
emphasis on Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. Final Report for
Installation Planning Division, Naval Facilities Engineering
Command, U.S. Navy, Norfolk, VA 23511. 83 pp.
References - 8 (DRAFT) - References
Species MANATEE, WEST INDIAN
Species Id ESIS054004
Date 14 MAR 96
References - 9