(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA

OTHER COMMON NAMES - BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA; BAT, BIG-EARED, TOWNSEND'S; BAT, BIG-EARED, WESTERN;BAT, LUMP-NOSED;BAT and LONG-EARED

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Mammals

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - MAMMALIA,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - CHIROPTERA,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - VESPERTILIONIDAE,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PLECOTUS,

SPECIES AND SSP - TOWNSENDII, VIRGINIANUS

SCIENTIFIC NAME - PLECOTUS TOWNSENDII VIRGINIANUS

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES -

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Virginia Big-eared Bat

Plecotus townsendii virginianus (Handley, 1955)

KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Mammal

PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Mammalia
ORDER: Chiroptera FAMILY: Vespertilionidae

The Virginia big-eared bat, Plecotus townsendii virginianus
(Handley, 1959), is a subspecies of Townsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus
townsendii Cooper, 1837) and is also known as the lump-nosed bat, the
western big-eared bat, and the long-eared bat.
Townsend's big-eared bat is a medium sized bat with large ears
(more than 2.5 cm long) connected across the forehead, mitten-shaped
glandular masses on the muzzle, and elongated nostril openings (01).
The adults weigh from 5 to 13 grams (02). Townsends's big-eared bat
closely resembles the eastern big-eared bat, Plecotus rafinesquii.
They can be distinguished most easily by hair color. Townsend's
big-eared bat has tan underparts and brown dorsal fur in contrast to
the whitish underparts and the gray dorsal fur of the eastern
big-eared bat (03).
The Virginia big-eared bat is more sooty dorsally than the Ozark
big-eared bat, geographically the closest conspecific population, and
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

averages slightly smaller in all dimensions. The first upper incisor
rarely has a trace of a secondary cusp and the rostrum is less heavy
and inflated than the Ozark big-eared bat's (02).
The Virginia big-eared bat was first described by Handley in
1955 who used the genus Corynorhinus and later (1959) reclassified
the subspecies under the genus Plecotus. Photographs of P.
townsendii appear in references 03 and 04.

Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

STATUS

Coded Status
Kentucky; Federal Endangered
Kentucky; State Recognized
North Carolina; Federal Endangered
North Carolina; State Recognized
Virginia; Federal Endangered
Virginia; State Recognized
Virginia; Unofficially Listed
West Virginia; Federal Endangered
West Virginia; State Recognized
West Virginia; Unofficially Listed

E: Federal Endangered

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Virginia big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii virginianus)
has been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16
U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status
wherever found including the States of Kentucky, North Carolina,
West Virginia, and Virginia.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.

RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:

USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
USFS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Forest Service lands. The
Forest Service is responsible for integrating
management, protection, and conservation of Federally
listed species into the Forest Planning process
(36 CFR 219.19 and 219.20).
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.

STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:

STATE: Virginia, West Virginia
UNOFFICIAL LIST: (Virginia) Endangered, Endangered and
Threatened Plants and Animals of Virginia, D.W.
Linzey (editor), Proceedings of a Symposium in
1978, published in 1979.
(West Virginia) Special Animal List, West
Virginia Department of Natural Resources.

STATE: Kentucky, North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (Kentucky) Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources.
(North Carolina) Wildlife Resources
Commission.
(Virginia) Commission of Game and Inland
Fisheries.
(West Virginia) Department of Natural
Resources.
STATE STATUTES: (Kentucky) State Statute 150.183.
(North Carolina) General Statute 113-134,
113-132, 143-239; NC Administrative Code.
(Virginia) State Code, 29.230-29.239.
(West Virginia) Endangered and Non-game Species
Act, WV Code, Chapter 20, Article 2, Section
20-2-60.

INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
None.

ECONOMIC STATUSES:
This species is insectivorous and may consume some pest species,
however, the impact is probably slight.

77/12/02:42 FR 61290/61297 - Proposed listing
79/03/06:44 FR 12382/12384 - Withdrawal of CH
79/08/20:44 FR 51144/51145 - Reproposal of CH
79/11/30:44 FR 69206/69208 - Final listing with CH
85/07/22:50 FR 29902/29909 - Five year review

Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL

LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Deciduous Forest Land

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Virginia big-eared bats inhabit caves during both summer and
winter. These caves typically are located in karst regions dominated
by beech-maple-hemlock associations (03). Pastures are sometimes
found in the vicinity of the cave entrance. The entrance itself is
typically in a forested area. The Virginia big-eared bats in West
Virginia hibernate in portions of caves where temperatures are 12
degrees C or less but above freezing (09). Air temperatures near the
hibernating colony in Lee County, KY ranged from 6.0 to 7.5 degrees C
in March 1982 (10). Ambient air temperatures recorded near
hibernating Ozark big-eared bat colonies and individuals in Arkansas
caves were all within a range of 4-9 degrees C; relative humidity
ranged from 80-95 percent (11).
The only known Ozark big-eared bat maternity colony in Arkansas
is located in a small, relatively warm cave. Ambient temperature
under the roost site averaged 15 degrees C. The relative humidity was
97 percent (12). This species' maternity colonies are often located
just beyond the twilight zone of the cave entrance. Virginia
big-eared bat maternity colonies are typically located deeper within
the caves.

Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods

Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Terrestrial Features: Caves, wet
G Terrestrial Features: Caves, dry

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

LIFE HISTORY

Much of the data presented below are based on studies of
non-endangered subspecies of Townsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus
townsendii) as well as the Endangered Ozark big-eared bat (Plecotus
townsendii ingens) due to the lack of information available on the
Virginia big-eared bat.

FOOD HABITS:
Townsend's big-eared bat feeds principally on small moths
(Microlepidoptera), averaging 6mm in length (range 3 to 10 mm), and
also may take other insects, including representatives of Neuroptera,
Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera (13,14,15). Howell (16) noted
that Townsend's big-eared bat captured insects from leaves and other
places. However, Bell (in Kunz and Martin, 17) noted that big-eared
bats feed mostly in the air along forested edges and should not be
regarded as foliage gleaners.

HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
There is no information available on this species' home range or
territoriality.

PERIODICITY:
During late March or early April, female big-eared bats
congregate and form maternity colonies in the warm parts of certain
caves. Although there may be occasional periods of torpor, the
females usually remain alert and active in the maternity roost.
Shortly after dark, the females emerge from the cave to forage. The
nocturnal activity pattern of bats in maternity colonies varies as the
maternity season progresses. During May and most of June, a portion
of the colony returns during the night and often re-emerges in a
pattern that probably is related to the age and development of the
young (18).
During the maternity period, most males are solitary (03,04,06).
However, a few males may live in or visit caves occupied by maternity
colonies. Townsend's big-eared bat prefers relatively cold places for
hibernation, often near entrances and in well ventilated parts of
caves (03,04,06,19,20,21). During hibernation, they assume body
temperatures that are highly correlated with ambient air temperature
and the temperature of the substrate on which they roost (04). In
winter, they often move deeper into the more thermally stable parts of
the same cave or move to other nearby caves if temperature near
entrances become too extreme (04,06,20,21). Over half of the autumn
body mass in Townsend's big-eared bats may be lost during hibernation
with the greatest loss occurring in the first months of winter (04).
The periodic arousal and movement of the bats contributes to loss of
fat reserves.

MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Townsend's big-eared bat appears to be a relatively sedentary
species. No long distance migrations have been reported. Barbour and
Davis (03) recorded movements of 64.4 km (40 mi) in Kentucky. The
Arkansas colony (of the subspecies ingens) moves only about 6.5 km
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

(4 mi) between the hibernaculum and maternity cave (11). This species
exhibits a high debree of site attachment, returning year after year
to the same maternity roosts (06). Winter activity may include short
movements among nearby hibrnacula (04).

COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Virginia big-eared bats inhabit caves during both summer and
winter. These caves typically are located in karst regions dominated
by beech-maple-hemlock associations (03). There is no information
available on the cover requirements of this species. Pastures are
sometimes found in the vicinity of the cave entrance. The entrance
itself is typically in a forested area. The Virginia big-eared bats
in West Virginia hibernate in portions of caves where temperatures are
12 degrees C or less but above freezing (09). Air temperatures near
the hibernating colony in Lee County, KY ranged from 6.0 to 7.5
degrees C in March 1982 (10). Ambient air temperatures recorded near
hibernating Ozark big-eared bat colonies and individuals in Arkansas
caves were all within a range of 4-9 degrees C; relative humidity
ranged from 80-95 percent (11).
The only known Ozark big-eared bat maternity colony in Arkansas
is located in a small, relatively warm cave. Ambient temperature
under the roost site averaged 15 degrees C. The relative humidity was
97 percent (12). This species' maternity colonies are often located
just beyond the twilight zone of the cave entrance. Virginia
big-eared bat maternity colonies are typically located deeper within
the caves.

REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Pearson et al. (06) found that copulation took place in the
hibernacula in fall and winter. The Virginia big-eared bats in West
Virginia hibernate in portions of caves where temperatures are 12
degrees C or less but above freezing (09). Air temperatures near the
hibernating colony in Stillhouse Cave, KY ranged from 6.0 to 7.5
degrees C in March 1982 (10). The young are born in maternity
colonies located in caves. Information on temperature and humidity of
Virginia big-eared bat maternity sites is not available. Ozark
big-eared bats are born in maternity colonies located in relatively
warm caves. Ambient temperature under the maternity roost site in
Arkansas averaged 15 degrees C. The relative humidity was 97 percent
(11).

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
This aspect of Townsend's big-eared bat biology was studied by
Pearson et al. (06) in California. The following is a summary by Kunz
and Martin (17) of Pearson's work:

Estrus and subsequent copulation begin in autumn and
the peak of copulations occurs from November through
February, although some females apparently mate before
arriving at hibernacula. Young females are reproductively
active and mate in their first autumn. Spermatozoa are
stored in the reproductive tracts of females until spring,
when ovulation, fertilization, and gestation occur.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

Ovulation may occur either before or after females leave
hibernation. Development of a single embryo takes place
in the right uterine horn. The length of gestation varies
from 56 to 100 days, depending on spring temperatures and
the varying amounts of torpor experienced by different
individuals. Parturition occurs in late spring and early
summer, followed by an anestrous period.
In adult males, spermatogenesis occurs during the
summer, reaching maximum activity in September. By late
September and early October, the testes of adults begin to
atrophy, coinciding with the appearance of sperm in the
enlarging epididymides. The accessory glands reach full
size in late October. Copulation is preceded by a ritualized
precopulatory behavior characterized by the production of
audible vocalizations, followed by head nuzzling which may
be directed at either torpid or active individuals. Young
males fail to reach sexual maturity in their first autumn.

PARENTAL CARE:
Pearson et al. (06) has reported upon the inclination of mother
P. townsendii in California to nurse only their own young and their
ability to select their own young from a large group. When the
mothers leave the roost at night to feed, the young are left behind
clinging together in one or two large clusters, but during the day
each young clings to its mother. Comparison of band numbers of
mothers and their accompanying young on successive visits to the same
nursery colony showed that in every case the mother was carrying the
same young as on the previous visit; hence, whenever she had returned
from feeding she must have selected from the cluster of young the
same individual that she had left there.
As in other bats, baby Townsend's big-eared bats are large at
birth, weighing nearly 25 percent of their mother's post-partum mass.
Newborn bats are naked and their large ears lie over their unopened
eyes for the first few days. Within a few hours after birth they can
produce audible "chirps" which may play an important role in
mother-infant recognition. At the age of one week, young bats are
capable of producing adult-like audible "squawks". Young bats grow
rapidly, nearly reaching adult forearm size in one month. They are
capable of flight at 2.5 to 3 weeks and are fully weaned by 6 weeks
(06,07).

POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Pearson et al. (06) commented that the Townsend's big-eared bat
of the West is likely limited by the number of suitable winter
roosting sites and the number of summer roosting sites surrounded by
adequate foraging habitat. Within the range of the Virginia big-eared
bat there appears to be available unoccupied habitat; however, unknown
ecological factors may restrict the bats from expanding into these
areas.
Evidence of predation on the Virginia big-eared bat is limited to
four incidents of predation (evidenced by torn body parts) at a cave
in Pendleton Co., West Virginia, which have occurred since a gate was
installed (28). House cats were implicated as the predator in at
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

least two of the incidents. Pearson et al. (06) had three records of
house cats bringing in dead specimens of P. townsendii in California,
but did not know how or by what these bats actually were killed.
Big-eared bat predators may include raccoons, bobcats, house cats,
skunks, screech owls, and snakes. Too little information is available
on the influence of food supply and disease to comment on their
significance as limiting factors.
Causes of decline of Townsend's big-eared bat likely include loss
of habitat, vandalism, and increased human visitation to maternity
roosts and hibernacula (04,05). Human disturbance at maternity and
hibernation sites has been a major concern. Barbour and Davis (03)
said "the bats seem to be abandoning more caves each year, apparently
as a result of ever-increasing human disturbance as spelunking becomes
more popular. The species seems destined to perish in the eastern
United States unless the caves it uses receive protection . . . ."
Pearson et.al. (06) witnessed the abandonment of a cave by an entire
colony. The young had been banded after the adults departed the cave
at night. By morning, the adults had returned, picked up their young,
and moved to an alternate roost 2.1 km (1.3 mi) away. Graham (07)
suggested that the cause of abandonment of each of six maternity roost
sites in California was the same, disturbance through excessive
visitation by people as the caves become popular. He chronicled the
shifting of one colony to ever more inaccessible regions of its cave
until the cave was finally abandoned in 1961.
Humphrey and Kunz (04) had similar experiences with colonies they
studied in northern Oklahoma and Kansas, and commented:

". . . clearly handling and simply the presence of people
cause this species to desert preferred roosts as well as
alternate roosts. It is unknown whether reduction
results from direct loss of embryos or young, delayed
development followed by failure to over-winter or failure
of living females to occupy the nursery the next year.
Whatever the mechanism, nursery populations decline after
disturbance and do not recover in the following year."

The immediate impact of human disturbance on Townsend's big-eared
bat colonies is probably comparable to similar disturbances of gray
bat colonies (08). The disturbance of big-eared bat colonies during
April and May risks, at a minimum, the abandonment of the site by the
colony. Disturbance later in the maternity season (June, July, and
early August) additionally risks a high mortality of young.
Disturbances during hibernation also may produce adverse effects. A
limited number of arousals from hibernation is natural and necessary,
but each arousal from hibernation is energetically expensive. Energy
reserves (in the form of fat) cannot be replaced before spring
emergence. If the number of arousals of a hibernating bat are
increased by human disturbance until its energy stores are exhausted,
it likely will leave the cave prematurely in search of food and die
outside where its fate will go unnoticed. Measures should be taken to
prevent human disturbance of colony sites, particularly from March 15
to October 31 at maternity colonies and from August 15 to April 30 at
hibernacula.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

Kunz and Martin (17) have provided the following summary of
available information on the natality and survivorship of Townsend's
big-eared bat. No such data have been collected on the endangered
subspecies.
Natality rates are comparable throughout the species' range,
varying from 90 to 100 percent (04,06,23,24,25). Pre-weaning,
post-natal mortality was 5 percent in South Dakota (25) and 4 percent
in Kansas and Oklahoma (04). Pearson et al. (06) estimated survival
rates of females by recording the number of yearling and adult females
that returned to maternity colonies each year. The number returning
in a 3 year period ranged from 70 to 80 percent for adults and 38 to
40 percent for yearlings. Of the yearlings that survived the first
year, 75 percent returned as 2 year olds and 80 percent of these
returned as 3 year olds. Judging from the percentage of young bats
observed in hibernation, Pearson et al. (06) postulated that most
mortality in the first year occurred before bats entered hibernation.
Maximum longevity reported for this species is 16 years 5 months,
based on recoveries of banded bats in California (26).
There is no predetermined population density objective under
management for this species.

SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The Virginia big-eared bat feeds primarily on small moths
(Microlepidoptera) and may also take other insects, including
representatives of Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera
(13,14,15). The use of insecticides in occupied big-eared bat habitat
may negatively affect this species by decreasing populations of insect
prey.

OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
During hibernation, Townsend's big-eared bat assumes postures
that appear to buffer it from environmental extremes, yet afford
sensitivity to climatic changes and disturbance. The ears may be held
erect or coiled like a ram's horn (03,04,06,19). Solitary bats often
hang pendent by one or both feet with wings wrapped around the body
and interlocked ventrally. The long pelage is erect to afford
maximum insulation (20). In contrast, the wings of clustered bats are
usually folded tightly against the body and the ears may or may not be
coiled (04,06,20).
Townsend's big-eared bat may be found hibernating solitarily or
in clusters of a few to several hundred individuals. In Arkansas,
Harvey et al. (11) found what appeared to be almost the entire Marble
Falls/Blue Heaven population hibernating in a single cluster. The age
and sex of individuals hibernating in small clusters appears to be
random (04,21), but larger clusters are more often comprised of nearly
equal numbers of both sexes (04,22). Male and female big-eared bats
move from their summer sites to the hibernaculum from late August
through October.

Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Spelunking
Existing Spelunking

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Much of the data presented below is based on studies of the
non-endangered subspecies of Townsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus
townsendii) and the endangered Ozark big-eared bat (Plecotus
townsendii ingens) due to the lack of information available on the
Virginia big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii virginianus). Causes of
decline of Townsend's big-eared bat likely include loss of habitat,
vandalism, and increased human visitation to maternity roosts and
hibernacula (04,05). Human disturbance at maternity and hibernation
sites has been a major concern. Barbour and Davis (03) said "the bats
seem to be abandoning more caves each year, apparently as a result of
ever-increasing human disturbance as spelunking becomes more popular.
The species seems destined to perish in the eastern United States
unless the caves it uses receive protection . . . ." Pearson et al.
(06) witnessed the abandonment of a cave by an entire colony. The
young had been banded after the adults departed the cave at night. By
morning, the adults had returned, picked up their young, and moved to
an alternate roost 2.1 km (1.3 mi) away. Graham (07) suggested that
the cause of abandonment of each of six maternity roost sites in
California was the same, disturbance through excessive visitation by
people as the caves become popular. He chronicled the shifting of one
colony to ever more inaccessible regions of its cave until the cave
was finally abandoned in 1961.
Humphrey and Kunz (04) had similar experiences with colonies they
studied in northern Oklahoma and Kansas, and commented:

The immediate impact of human disturbance on Townsend's big-eared
bat colonies is probably comparable to similar disturbances of gray
bat colonies (08). The disturbance of big-eared bat colonies during
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

April and May risks, at a minimum, the abandonment of the site by the
colony. Disturbance later in the maternity season (June, July, and
early August) additionally risks a high mortality of young.
Disturbances during hibernation also may produce adverse effects. A
limited number of arousals from hibernation is natural and necessary,
but each arousal from hibernation is energetically expensive. Energy
reserves (in the form of fat) cannot be replaced before spring
emergence. If the number of arousals of a hibernating bat are
increased by human disturbance until its energy stores are exhausted,
it likely will leave the cave prematurely in search of food and die
outside where its fate will go unnoticed. Measures should be taken to
prevent human disturbance of colony sites, particularly from March 15
to October 31 at maternity colonies and from August 15 to April 30 at
hibernacula.
In the future this bat may experience additional negative effects
from the following factors:

(1) Increased human disturbance resulting from and increase in
popularity of sport spelunking in the Appalachian region.

(2) Increased human alteration of surface habitat resulting in damage
to feeding areas.

(3) Uncontrolled mineral exploration degrading significant
subterranean habitats.

(4) Increased use of pesticides and other toxic substances within its
feeding habitat. The use of insecticides in occupied big-eared bat
habitat may negatively affect this species by decreasing populations
of insect prey.

APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for the Ozark
Big-eared Bat and Virginia Big-eared Bat. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Twin Cities, MN. 56 pp. + 8 Appendices.

The Recovery Plan for the Virginia big-eared bat sets the
following recovery objectives:

The criteria for the change to threatened status for
the Virginia big-eared bat will be documentation of long-term
protection of 95 percent of all known active colony sites
and documentation of stable or increasing populations at
95 percent of the known active maternity sites and
hibernacula for a period of five years. It seems unlikely
that the Virginia big-eared bat will recover to a point
where it can be removed from the threatened list. However,
this matter should be reconsidered at the time its status
is reduced from endangered to threatened.

The following recovery actions are recommended for the Virginia
big-eared bat:
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

1. Monitor population trends.
2. Search for undocumented caves of importance to big-eared bats.
3. Prevent human disturbance of maternity colonies and hibernacula.
4. Protect caves providing habitat for solitary big-eared bats.
5. Prevent adverse modifications to essential habitat.
6. Identify essential foraging habitat and gather data on toxic
substance exposure of the bats.
7. Develop and maintain public support for this species' protection.
8. Prepare and maintain a management profile for each colony site.

Items 4 and 5 above include precautions/restrictions in road
maintenance activities and mining near caves inhabited by bats.

Ongoing recovery activities include:

1. Annual surveys of all known maternity colonies.
2. Efforts to protect colony sites from human disturbance through
cooperative agreements, purchases of easements, and land
acquisition.
3. Studies of foraging behavior and surface habitat use.
4. Studies of impacts of gates and fences on bat behavior.

Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

References

***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****

01 Handley, C.O., Jr., G. Tipton, and A. Tipton. 1978. The western
big-eared bat. Pages 479-500. IN: E.W. Linzey, (ed.),
Proceedings of the Symposium on Endangered and Threatened Plants
and Animals of Virginia. Center for Environ. Studies, Blacksburg,
VA.
02 Handley, C.O., Jr. 1959. A revision of American bats of the
genera Euderma and Plecotus. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 110:95-246.
03 Barbour, R.W. and W.H. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. Univ.
Press, Lexington, KY. 286 pp.
04 Humphrey, S.R. and T.H. Kunz. 1976. Ecology of a Pleistocene
relict, the western big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii), in the
southern Great Plains. J. Mamm. 57:470-494.
05 Harvey, M.J. 1975. Endangered Chiroptera of the southeastern
United States. Proc. 29th Ann. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Game Fish
Comm.
06 Pearson, O.P., M.R. Koford, and A.K. Pearson. 1952. Reproduction
of the lump-nosed bat (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) in California.
J. Mammal. 33:273-320.
07 Graham, R.E. 1966. Observations on the roosting habits of the
big-eared bat, Plecotus townsendii in California limestone caves.
Cave Notes 8:17-22.
08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. The Gray Bat Recovery Plan.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, D.C. 143 pp.
09 Hall, J. Personal communication. Albright College, Dept. Biology,
P.O. Box 516, Reading, PA 19603.
10 Currie, R. Personal communication. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 100 Otis St., Room 224, Asheville, NC 28801.
11 Harvey, M.J., J.J. Cassidy, and G.G. O'Hagan. 1981. Endangered
bats of Arkansas: Distribution, status, ecology, and management.
Ecological Res. Cent., Memphis St. Univ. 137 pp.
12 Harvey, M. Personal communication. Dept. Biology, Tennessee
Technological University, Cookeville, TN 38505.
13 Hamilton, W.J., Jr. 1943. The Mammals of Eastern United States.
Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, NY. 432 pp.
14 Ross, A. 1967. Ecological aspects of the food habits of
insectivorous bats. Proc. Western Found. Vert. Zool. 1:205-264.
15 Whitaker, J.O., Jr., C. Maser, and L.E. Keller. 1977. Food habits
of bats of Western Oregon. Northwest Sci. 51:46-55.
16 Howell, A.B. 1920. Some California experiences with bat roosts.
J. Mammal. 1:169-177.
17 Kunz, T.H. and R.A. Martin. 1982. Plecotus townsendii. Mammalian
species No. 175:1-6., Amer. Soc. Mammal.
18 Bagley, F. and J. Jacobs. In preparation. Development of a
non-intrusive population census technique for Ozark and Virginia
big-eared bat maternity colonies.
19 Dalquest, W.W. 1947. Notes on the natural history of the bat
Corynorhinus rafinesquii in California. J. Mammal. 28:17-30.
20 Twente, J.W., Jr. 1955. Some aspects of habitat selection and
other behavior of cavern-dwelling bats. Ecology 36:706-732.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species BAT, BIG-EARED, VIRGINIA
Species Id ESIS055003
Date 14 MAR 96

21 Martin, R.A. and B.G. Hawks. 1972. Hibernating bats of the Black
Hills of South Dakota. Distribution and habitat selection. Proc.
New Jersey Acad. Sci. 17:24-30.
22 Rippy, C.L. and M.J. Harvey, 1965. Notes on Plecotus townsendii
virginianus in Kentucky. J. Mammal. 46:499.
23 Fenton, M.B. 1969. The carrying of young by females of three
species of bats. Canadian J. Zool. 47:158-159.
24 Hall, E.R. 1946. Mammals of Nevada. Univ. Calif. Press,
Berkeley, CA. 710pp. 1981. The Mammals of North America. John
Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. 1:XIV + 600 + 90 pp.
25 Turner, R.W. and J.K. Jones, Jr. 1968. Additional notes on bats
from western South Dakota. Southwestern Nat. 13:444-447.
26 Paradiso, J.L. and A.M. Greenhall. 1967. Longevity records for
American bats. Am. Midl. Nat. 78:251-252.
27 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. A Recovery Plan for the
Ozark Big-eared Bat and the Virginia Big-eared Bat. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. Washington, D.C. 63 pp.
28 Walker, L. 1984. Personal communication. Wildlife Assistant, WV
Department of Natural Resources Operations Center, Elkins, WV
26241.

***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****

01 McGregor, J. 1984. Personal communication. Kentucky Dept. Fish
Wildlife Resources, #1 Game Farm Road, Frankfort, KY 40601.
02 Currie, R. 1984. Personal communication. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 100 Otis St., Room 224, Asheville, NC 28801.
03 Tipton, V. 1984. Personal communication. Dept. Biology, Radford
University, Radford, VA 24142.
04 Hall, J. 1984. Personal communication. Albright College, Dept.
Biology, P.O. Box 516, Reading, PA 19603.
05 Harvey, M. 1984. Personal communication. Dept. Biology,
Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN 38505.
06 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. A Recovery Plan for the
Ozark Big-eared Bat and the Virginia Big-eared Bat. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. Washington, D.C. 63 pp.

References - 2