(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
OTHER COMMON NAMES - RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA;RAIL, CLAPPER;RAIL, KING, CALIFORNIA;RAIL, RED-BREASTED;HEN, MARSH;HEN, WATER-;RAIL and SAN MATEO;PALMOTEADOR
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - GRUIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - RALLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - RALLUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - LONGIROSTRIS, OBSOLETUS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - RALLUS LONGIROSTRIS OBSOLETUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
California Clapper Rail
Rallus longirostris obsoletus Ridgway, 1874
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Gruiformes FAMILY: Rallidae
The clapper rail is similar in size (35-42 cm) to the familiar
American coot (Fulicula americana) but notably compressed laterally.
Overall shape is rather like that of a small chicken, however the bill
is thinner, longer (5-6 cm) and slightly decurved. Wings are rather
short and rounded and the tail is very short. Legs are long and often
dangle in flight. Dorsal coloration is predominantly brown with
admixture of black, olive, gray, and tan giving an indistinctly
streaked appearance. Supercilium from bill to eye is white to
rufescent, fading to gray-brown behind eye. The throat is white to
tan; breast is warm, buff-brown. Sides are distinctly striped with
white on light brown background, with stripes extending below to
girdle belly. Undertail coverts are bright white. Juvenal plumage is
much darker than adult plumage, with the superloral stripe less
rufescent than in the adult (64). There is inter-racial variation,
but in general, obsoletus is larger and has grayer plumage than either
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
subspecies levipes or yumanensis (78). Complete descriptions are
provided in van Rossem (76), and in Ridgeway and Friedman (64).
Partial albinism has been reported (15,78).
The clapper rails recorded in San Francisco Bay in the mid-1800's
on the early Pacific Railroad Surveys were first considered a variety
of king rail, R. elegans var obsoletus (62), and later designated a
distinct species, R. obsoletus (63). Subsequently, all the Pacific
Coast populations were merged into a single species, R. obsoletus
(76). Finally, Oberholser (55) merged the Atlantic and Pacific
populations into one species, Rallus longirostris, and designated the
San Francisco Bay population as the variety obsoletus; this
nomenclature remains accepted (02,03). Some authors would merge R.
elegans (king rail) with the other "New World clapper rails" (65).
California clapper rail is the common name used most frequently,
however, some accounts refer simply to "clapper rail" (12,83).
Synonyms applied to this species include California king rail,
red-breasted rail, marsh hen (32), water-hen, and San Mateo rail (33).
Not to be confused with the California clapper rail are two other
races which occur in California, the light-footed clapper rail (R. l.
levipes) and the Yuma clapper rail (R. l. yumanensis). The clapper
rail (Rallus longirostris) is called Palmoteador in Mexico.
The type specimen was taken at San Francisco in March 1857 by
Dr. G. Suckley (62,78). Museums containing collection series (more
than ten specimens) of obsoletus include: California Academy of
Sciences, San Francisco; Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley; Field
Museum of Natural History, Chicago; American Museum of Natural
History, New York; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Cambridge; University of California, Los Angeles
(78).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial
Commercial/consumption
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The California clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) has
been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884;
16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status
wherever found including the State of California. Critical Habitat
has not been designated.
This subspecies is included under the listing of the clapper rail
(Rallus longirostris) in the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 USC 703-712
and 50 CFR 10.13).
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: California
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: California Department of Fish and Game
STATE STATUTE: California Endangered Species Act; Fish and Game
Code, Chapter 1.5, Article 1, Sec. 2050.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
R. l. obsoletus is listed as "Vulnerable" in the IUCN Red Data
Book, 1979, and is also listed in the Convention on Nature Protection
and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (1970). Rallus
longirostris (the Palmoteador) is listed as Appendix I in Mexico's
"Especies de Fauna en Peligro de Extinction en Mexico", (Reyes; August
1980).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The California clapper rail has aesthetic value as a rare species
and is sought by birdwatchers. In the early 19th century, market
hunting nearly depleted the California clapper rail population. They
were reportedly served as a delicacy in San Francisco and some were
salted and shipped to feed gold miners in the mid-1800's.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/ - Proposed rule
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Listed as Endangered
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Five year review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25522/ - Notice of five year review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Transportation, communications, and Util
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, intertidal RF2
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Estuarine, intertidal EM
Estuarine, intertidal RF2
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Estuarine, intertidal EM
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Historically, the distribution of the California clapper rail was
restricted to the tidal salt marshes of California from Humboldt Bay
to Morro Bay with the bulk of the population centered in San Francisco
Bay. Because obsoletus is now resticted to San Francisco Bay, the
characteristics of the Bay's marshes provide the only suitable
habitat. Although Gill (29) found clapper rails in only 60 pct.
of the estuarine marsh surveyed, their ability to colonize restored
marsh (24,42) and recolonize areas of former occurrence (48,67,81)
indicates that all tidal salt marsh within San Francisco Bay is
potential habitat. Josselyn (41) has summarized the environmental
parameters of the Bay's tidal marshes.
The various breeding season surveys (06,18,23,30,37,75,84)
indicate that clapper rails utilize all portions of the marsh during
the year. Mud flats and tidal channels are used for foraging (18,23,
79), dense salt marsh vegetation provides nesting sites and brooding
areas (06,18,23,37), transitional vegetation ("peripheral halophytes")
and fringing ruderal vegetation provides refuge during periods of
tidal inundation (23,41,66,68).
The plant community utilized by the California clapper rail as
nesting habitat is dominated by Pacific cordgrass (Spartina foliosa)
and pickleweed (Salicornia spp.) (23,30,37) with gumplant (Grindelia
humilis) providing important cover in some marshes (23,75,84). There
is evidence that characteristics of nesting sites differ between
marshes, probably resulting from the availability of cover. In Marin
County most nests were under dense Grindelia bushes on channel banks
(23). In south San Francisco Bay most nests were found in areas
dominated by Salicornia with tidal wrack and Spartina nearby (37). At
Dumbarton Bridge Marsh nests in Spartina or Grindelia were most common
(84).
The importance of tidal channels intersecting the marsh (often
Habitat Associations - 1 forming "islands") has been mentioned in numerous studies (06,18,23,
27,30,37), and Harvey (37) found greater densities in areas where
channels were more numerous. Varoujean (75) attributed the absence of
clapper rails at Moro Cojo Slough to the absence of "undercut
mudbanks". In a North Bay study, most nests were within 1.5 meters of
a channel (23), however in a South Bay survey the mean distances to
the nearest channel ranged from 6.0-10.9 meters (37).
Various habitat locales are bordered or transected by mixed urban
development, highways and roads, railroad right-of-ways or power
transmission lines.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Amphibia
General Aves
General Mammalia
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Fish
General Amphibia
General Aves
General Mammalia
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Reports on the feeding habits of the California clapper rail
(Rallus longirostris obsoletus) indicate that invertebrates constitute
a high percentage of items taken (15,31,53,72,79). Invertebrate items
include: ribbed mussels (41,53); clams (Macoma) (53,79); amphipoda
(14,72); shore crabs (Hemigrapsis and Pachygrapsis) (14,15,31,53,75);
spiders (Lycosidae) (53); and occasional snails, nereid worms, and
insects (53,79). Fish were also taken (14). Crayfish (Pasifasticus)
has been described as a major food source for the Yuma clapper rail
(R. l. yumanensis) (56) and the presence of Pasifasticus in Suisun
Marsh (36) may be a significant factor in the recent range expansion
of obsoletus east of the Carquinez Strait (10,36,45,67).
Plant material is also taken (14); in a sample of 18 stomachs
collected near Palo Alto, cordgrass (Spartina) seeds constituted 14.5
pct. of the total and over 50% of the contents of two specimens (53).
Vertebrates as food items included reports of mice
(Reithrodontomys) (68,78,80) being taken during high tides, a frog
(09), and brush rabbit (Sylvilagus) bones (perhaps carrion) found in a
stomach (53). Other races of clapper rails have been observed eating
birds (69,40), however this behavior has not been reported for
obsoletus.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Clapper rails are probably monogamous, the typical behavior
pattern of the Rallidae (35). Territoriality is assumed in most rail
species (65) and in the few breeding season studies of the California
clapper rail (23,36). Mean densities derived from recent breeding
season census data range from 0.2 - 1.6 rails/ha (23,29,36) and
indicate that territory size ranges from 1.6 - 10 ha depending on
quality of habitat. Annual fluctuations in numbers reported for
obsoletus (28,29,84) and crepitans (26,77) have been attributed to
intraspecific territoriality (26,77) and changes in biomass of
Spartina (29). The question of annual fluctuation in the population
size of obsoletus requires further study before any judgement can be
made. Seasonal variation in population size of obsoletus has been
reported (23,29,34,37,38): in Marin County the highest densities were
found in mid-winter and attributed to increased vocal activity (23).
The variability in seasonal vocal activity of rails, tidal regimes,
rainfall, site-to-site predation, census methods, and observer effect
probably form a mosaic of influences affecting the detectability of
population size.
The numerous observations of concentrations in small areas of
marsh or bordering habitat during periods of extreme winter high tides
(20,27,36,84) indicate that territorial behavior is superseded by
overriding environmental constraints. This behavior has not been
observed during summer (breeding season) high tides, probably because
they occur at night.
The suggestion that males and females segregate during winter
(01) has not been verified or discounted by any recent studies.
PERIODICITY:
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
The activity of the California clapper rail is influenced
primarily by tidal level. Foraging areas include intertidal mud
flats, banks of tidal channels, and Spartina beds. There is some
evidence that breeding is timed to avoid the highest tides of summer
(18,23).
Peak vocal activity has been reported during December and lowest
vocal activity during July and August (23).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Essentially non-migratory, however records out of habitat, beyond
the boundries of the known range, and in areas of former occurrence
indicate that there is a post-breeding dispersal (04,05,19,22,43,46,
47,49,57,58,59,82). Migration movement has been reported for the
Atlantic population, R. l. crepitans (17,70).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Salt marsh vegetation characteristic of San Francisco Bay (41,51,
52) and the thick cover of transitional vegetation around the
periphery of the marsh are essential requirements (23,41,66).
Although Gill (29) found clapper rails present in only 60 pct.
of the estuarine marsh surveyed, their ability to colonize restored
marsh (24,42) and recolonize areas of former occurrence (48,67,81)
indicates that all tidal salt marsh within San Francisco Bay is
potential habitat. Josselyn (41) has summarized the environmental
parameters of the Bay's tidal marshes.
The various breeding season surveys (06,18,23,30,37,75,84)
indicate that clapper rails utilize all portions of the marsh during
the year. Mud flats and tidal channels are used for foraging (18,23,
79), dense salt marsh vegetation provides nesting sites and brooding
areas (06,18,23,37), transitional vegetation ("peripheral halophytes")
and fringing ruderal vegetation provides refuge during periods of
tidal inundation (23,41,66,68).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Nest site requirements have been described at Corte Madera Marsh,
Marin Co. (23), west Dumbarton Bridge Marsh (84), South San Francisco
Bay (06,18,27,37), and Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Co. (75) with
considerable site-to-site variation. In general, nest sites tend to
be located on or near the banks of tidal sloughs that intersect the
marsh (18,23,27,30,37). At Dumbarton Point, higher concentrations of
nests were found in the lower marsh where tidal sloughs were more
abundant (37). Nests are located under the dense vegetative cover of
Grindelia, Salicornia, or Distichlis; a canopy of wrack or debris is
used occasionally (18) or commonly (37). Mean canopy height ranged
from 56-58 cm in south San Francisco Bay (37). Nests are constructed
of dead plant material; Spartina is a favored species (37,84) however
other available materials will be utilized (84).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Little information is available concerning many aspects of
breeding behavior (minimum and maximum breeding ages, receptive period
of female, mating relationships). What is known can be extrapolated
from known nests, of which many have been reported. Evidence of nests
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
and eggs has been reported from early March (23) through August 1
(18). Taking into account site selection and nest building, Evens and
Page (23) suggest the breeding season may begin as early as February.
The peak of the breeding season spans early April to mid-May (23,27,
28,37,78) followed by a lull through mid-June, then a renewed, though
reduced, effort through July (18,23,27). The timing of earliest
nesting, the lull period, and the latest nesting apparently varies
from site-to-site, or year-to-year, probably in relation to the
highest tidal levels (18,23,27). Zucca (84) attributed prolonged
nesting to renewed attempts following destructive high tides.
Although the crepitans subspecies is known to double brood (11,44),
double brooding in California clapper rails has not been adequately
confirmed or denied (18,84). Sexual display has not been reported for
the California clapper rail, but for the Rallidae in general, display
is limited to bowing, allopreening, tail-cocking, and mock-feeding
(65).
PARENTAL CARE:
After a minimum incubation period of 22 days (06,37,39,84) of a
typical clutch size of 5-14 eggs (78), precocial, nidifugous chicks
are hatched. Incubation periods for R. l. obsoletus in San Francisco
Bay have been given as 24-29 days (06). The duration of parental care
is not well-known, however brood nests have been reported (23,37).
Chicks estimated to be at least ten days old have been observed
accompanying an adult (21), and a brood of Northern clapper rails
estimated to be two weeks old was seen accompanying two adults (60).
The age of sexual maturity, duration of family bond, and longevity are
unknown.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Little is known about the population biology of obsoletus. Most
field work has concentrated on distribution, density, and nest site
characteristics. Based on the historic and current distribution of
the species, the primary limiting factor is availability of habitat
which has been drastically reduced and altered by human activity (41,
52). Extremely high tides probably increase predation and reduce
nesting success (18,27), therefore subsidence of marshlands will have
a negative effect on productivity. Changes in biomass and production
of marsh vegetation may cause fluctuations in rail populations (29).
Predation of eggs by Norway rats (06,23,37,84) and ravens (23) may
have a major impact on a population and is probably related to percent
cover. Predation pressure on adults and birds of the year by avian
predators can be severe (23).
Recent breeding population densities for obsoletus have been
reported as 0.3 - 1.6 birds/ha (23,29,37); historic densities ranging
from 1.6 - 4.3 birds/ha have been reported (06,84). Densities of 1.5
birds/ha is an appropriate management goal. For managemt purposes, it
is important to take into account Gill's findings that only 60% of
available habitat was utilized (29).
Botulism has been reported in clapper rails in San Francisco Bay
(74).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
As stated above, clapper rails are susceptible to predation of
eggs by Norway rats and common ravens (06,23,37,84) and predation of
adult and immature birds by avian predators (18,23). A management
goal of eliminating or reducing raptor perches within rail habitat may
reduce predation pressure. Any measures to reduce rat populations in
adjacent uplands would also be beneficial to rail populations.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Groundwater drawdown
Existing Groundwater drawdown
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse Predation
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Groundwater drawdown
Existing Groundwater drawdown
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
In the late 19th century, market hunting severely depleted the
clapper rail population (08,16,18,29,32,50,71), and under pressure
from conservationists (16) local county governments restricted
harvesting for several years. Passage of the Federal Migratory Bird
Law in 1913 provided further legislation to protect the species which
had been depleted to the brink of extinction (13,18).
The historical tidal marshland of San Francisco Bay has been
reduced in overall size by 60-95% (07,41,54). Other areas of former
occurrence have been similarly altered. Humboldt Bay, for example,
lost more than 90% of its tidal marshlands between 1881-1973 (52).
This loss of habitat is the overriding factor that has contributed to
the endangered status of the California clapper rail (18,29,50,73).
Marshes have been filled for industrial development, converted to
agricultural production, and diked for salt evaporation. The nature
of habitat loss differs in the North and South Bay regions. In the
South Bay salt evaporation ponds and industrial fill accounts for most
habitat loss; in the North Bay conversion for agricultural production
predominates. Changing land use practices from 1850 to present have
generated various trends, however the net result has been loss of
habitat (summarized in reference 41).
While reductions in the acreage of available salt marshes is the
primary cause of population decline, secondary causes are related.
Around most of San Francisco Bay dikes now replace the upper zone of
the marsh; less than three miles of natural transition zone is
currently present in the Bay (66). The transitional vegetation at the
upland edge of the salt marsh is a necessary refuge during periods of
high tide (23,66,68). Predation by hawks and owls (18,23) is another
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
threat that is probably related to habitat quality. A recent North
Bay study reported a 25% predation rate by raptors (23). Predation by
Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), on eggs and possibly chicks is an
additional liability to rail populations (06,09,13,18,23,37,50,84).
In a recent South Bay study 33% of the eggs laid were destroyed by
rats (37). The urbanization of the bayshore has undoubtedly increased
the rat population.
Agricultural runoff containing selenium from herbicide use may be
adversely affecting the rail through the food supply (88).
Some authors have implicated extremely high tides and flooding as
significant detriments to clapper rail nesting efforts (37,84), others
have found the effect negligible (23). This difference may be
attributable to the height of the marsh. Other factors being equal,
marshes that are undergoing subsidence due to depletion of ground
water (as in the South Bay (07,61)) may have lower nesting success
than a marsh of stable elevation. Predation may be facilitated by a
lack of vegetative cover in the transitional area from the lower marsh
to the upper marsh (07,84,85,86,87). The lack of cover being a result
of diking and/or grazing.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for the Salt
Marsh Harvest Mouse and California Clapper Rail. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 141 pp.
The recovery plan for the California clapper rail also includes
the salt marsh harvest mouse. The primary objective of the recovery
plan is (1) to secure and manage 3,900 hectares of essential habitat
under government jurisdictions, (2) to secure and manage 3,200
hectares of habitat which is mostly privately owned, and (3) to
restore or enhance 7,000 hectares of historip habitat. If these three
objectives were met then the rail could be upgraded to Threatened
status. If the foregoing, along with the restoration and/or
enhancement of an undetermined amount of additional essential habitat
and the completion of marsh restoration efforts on San Francisco Bay
NWR following cessation of salt production within its boundaries were
attained then the rail population might be delisted.
The following actions are needed to meet the recovery criteria
listed above:
1. Existing marshes must be protected from further degradaton or
development, and marshes should be interconnected or combined in
order to create maximum populations;
2. Habitat management plans need to be developed and implemented on
all marshes.
3. Unprotected marshes and essential marshes need to be secured and
managed to allow the restoration, enhancement, or creation of
habitat with unrestricted tidal circulation, healthy invertebrate
populations, and suitable nesting areas for the California
clapper rail. This requires wetland modifications involving
water flow and water salinity.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
4. Upper portions of marshes must be restored to provide refugia
during high tides and to provide nesting habitat in marshes which
have undergone subsidence and vegetative changes;
5. Eliminate or reduce the adverse impacts of industrial pollutants.
Reduce the effects of traffic noise and human foot travel in
certain areas. Biological research on impacts from sewage
effluents, pollutants, flood control measures, salinity, mosquito
abatement, rise of sea level, reduced sedimentation, marsh
erosion, and marsh accretion is needed to provide information
essential to recovery efforts.
6. Reestablish populations at selected locations by capturing wild
individuals and translocating them.
7. Develop and implement a program for conservation education.
Although not mentioned in the Recovery Plan as a recovery action,
there are some efforts ongoing to control exotic and native predators.
The Nature Conservancy has purchased Tubbs Island in San Pablo
Bay and Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay, in order to protect additional
areas of important habitat.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Adams, E. 1900. Notes on the California clapper rail. Condor
2:31-32.
02 American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of the North
American birds, 5th ed. The Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore.
691 pp.
03 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of the North
American birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
04 Anonymous. 1936. Clapper rail. Gull 18(11):1.
05 Anonymous. 1937. Clapper rail vagrancy. Gull 19(3):2.
06 Applegarth, J.H. 1938. The ecology of the California clapper rail
on the South Arm of San Francisco Bay. M.S. Thesis, Stanford
Univ., CA. 153 pp.
07 Atwater, B.F., et al. 1979. History, landforms, and vegetation of
the estuary's tidal marshes. Pages 347-386. IN: San Francisco
Bay: The urbanized estuary. T.J. Conomos, ed. Pacific Div., Am.
Assoc. Adv. Science, San Francisco, CA.
08 Beck, R.H. 1894. Cooper Club meeting. Nidologist 1:122.
09 Bent, A.C. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds.
U.S. Natl. Museum Bull. 135. 502 pp.
10 Beyer, F. 1979. Seventy-ninth Audubon Christmas bird count No.
1160. Benecia, Ca. Am. Birds 33:644.
11 Blandin, W.W. 1963. Renesting and multiple brooding studies of
marked clapper rails. Proc. Southeast. Game Fish Comm. 17:6068.
12 Brooks, A. 1940. The clapper rail of Morro Bay. Condor
42:126-127.
13 Bryant, H.C. 1915. California clapper rail breeds in Alameda salt
marsh. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. 1:192.
14 Cogswell, H.L. 1977. Water birds of California. Univ. of Calif.
Press, Berkeley. 399 pp.
15 Cohen, D.A. 1895. The California clapper rail. Oologist
12(11):171-173.
16 Cohen, D.A. 1899. Clapper rail in Alameda County. Bull. Cooper
Ornithol. Club 1:31.
17 Crawford, R.L., S.L. Olson, and W.K. Taylor. 1983. Winter
distribution of subspecies of clapper rails (Rallus longirostris)
in Florida with evidence of long-distance and overland movements.
Auk 100:198-200.
18 DeGroot, D.S. 1927. The California clapper rail: Its nesting
habits, enemies and habitat. Condor 29:259-270.
19 DeSante, D. and D. Ainley. 1980. The avifauna of the South
Farallon Islands, California. Studies in Avian Biology No. 4.
Cooper Ornithol. Soc. 104 pp.
20 DeSante, D., D.A. Gaines, and V. Remsen. 1973. Middle Pacific
Coast Region. Am. Birds 27:659.
21 Evens, J. 1972. Unpublished field notes. Point Reyes Bird
Observatory, 4990 Shoreline Hwy., Stinson, CA 94956.
22 Evens, J., R.A. Erickson, and R. LeValley. 1982. Middle Pacific
Coast Region. Am. Birds 36:213.
23 Evens, J. and G. Page. 1983. The ecology of rail populations at
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
Corte Madera Ecological Reserve: With recommendations for
management. Report to Marin Audubon Society.
24 Faber, P. 1982. Report on the current status of Muzzi Marsh.
Report to Golden Gate Bridge, Highway & Transportation District.
25 Zucca, J.J. 1954. A study of the California clapper rail.
Wasmann J. Biol. 12:135-153.
26 Ferringo, F. They go up, they go down: Population dynamics of the
clapper rail. New Jersey Outdoors 16(8):2-9.
27 Gill, R. 1972. South San Francisco Bay breeding bird survey,
1971. Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Spec. Wildl. Invest., Rep. No. 72-6.
28 Gill, R. 1977. Breeding avifauna of the south San Francisco Bay
estuary. Western Birds 8:1-12.
29 Gill, R., Jr. 1979. Status and distribution of the California
clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus). Calif. Dept. Fish
Game. 65:36-49.
30 Gould, G. 1973. California clapper rail survey - 1973. Calif.
Dept. Fish Game, Special Wildlife Invest., Federal Aid in Wildlife
Restoration. Project W-54-R-5, Job 11-10. 6 pp.
31 Grinnell, J., H.C. Bryant, and T.I. Storer. 1918. The game birds
of California. Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley.
32 Grinnell, J. and A. Miller. 1944. The distribution of the birds
of California. Pacific Coast Avifauna 27. 608 pp.
33 Grinnell, J. and M.W. Wythe. 1927. Directory of the bird-life of
the San Francisco Bay region. Pacific Coast Avifauna 18.
34 Gull Moss, J. 1980. Winter populations of the California clapper
rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in the San Francisco Bay
National Wildlife Refuge 1979-1980. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Rep.
35 Gullion, G.G. 1954. The reproductive cycle of the American coot
in California. Auk 71:366-412.
36 Harvey, T.E. 1980. California clapper rail survey, 1978-1979.
Calif. Dept. Fish Game. Project E-W-3. Job Final Report, Job
V-1.8 (July 1980).
37 Harvey, T.E. 1980. A breeding season survey of the California
clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in San Francisco Bay.
Final Report November 30, 1980.
38 Harvey, T.E. 1981. A nonbreeding season study of the California
clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in San Francisco Bay.
Final Report March 31, 1981.
39 Johnston, R.F. 1956. The incubation period of the clapper rail.
Condor 58:166.
40 Jorgenson, P.D. and H.L. Ferguson. 1982. Clapper rail preys on
savannah sparrow. Wilson Bull. 94:215.
41 Josselyn, M. 1983. The ecology of the San Francisco Bay tidal
marshes: A community profile. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Div. of
Biological Serv., Washington D.C. FWS/OBS-83/23. 102 pp.
42 Josselyn, M.N. and J.W. Buccholz. 1984. Marsh restoration in San
Francisco Bay: A guide to design and planning. Tech. Rep. #3,
Tiburon Ctr. for Environ. Stud., San Francisco State Univ. 104 pp.
43 Kimball, H.H. 1922. Bird records from California, Arizona and
Guadalupe Island. Condor 24:96-97.
44 Kozicky, E.L. and F.V. Schmidt. 1949. Nesting habits of the
clapper rail in New Jersey. Auk 66:355-364.
45 Laymon, S.A. 1979. Middle Pacific Coast Region. Am. Birds
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
33:803.
46 Laymon, S.A. and W.D. Shuford. 1980. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 34:196.
47 LeValley, R. and D. Roberson. 1983. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 37:220.
48 LeValley, R. and J. Evens. 1981. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 35:332.
49 Lindsdale, J. 1936. Occurrence of the California clapper rail
away from marshes. Condor 38:216.
50 Littlejohn, C. 1922. Diminutions in numbers of birds formerly
common in San Mateo County, California. Gull 4:2.
51 MacDonald, K.B. 1977. Plant and animal communities of Pacific
North American salt marshes. Pages 167-191. IN: Ecosystems of
the World. Vol. 1: Wet coastal ecosystems. B.J. Chapman, ed.
Elsevier Science Publ., Amsterdam.
52 MacDonald, K.B. 1977. Coastal salt marsh. IN: Terrestrial
vegetation of California. J. Major and M.G. Barbour, eds. Wiley
and Sons, New York.
53 Moffitt, J. 1941. Notes on the food of the California clapper
rail. Condor 43:270-273.
54 Nichols, D.R. and N.A. Wright. 1971. Preliminary map of the
historic margins of marshlands, San Francisco Bay, California.
U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. Basic Data Contrib. 9.
10 pp + map.
55 Oberholser, H.C. 1937. A revision of the clapper rails (Rallus
longirostris Boddaert). Proc. U.S. Natl. Museum 84:313-354.
56 Ohmart, R.D. and R.E. Tomlinson. 1977. Foods of western clapper
rails. Wilson Bull. 89:332-336.
57 Orr, R. 1939. Fall wanderings of clapper rails. Condor
41:151-152.
58 Parmeter, H.E. 1938. California clapper rail. Gull 20:46-47.
59 Page, G., W.D. Shuford, J. Evens, and L. Stenzel. 1983. The
distribution and abundance of the aquatic birds in wetlands of the
Point Reyes to Bodega area. Report to Pt. Reyes - Farallones Mar.
Sanctuary. Pt. Reyes Bird Observ. 119 pp + append.
60 Pettingill, O.S., Jr. 1938. Intelligent behavior in the clapper
rail. Auk 55:411-415.
61 Poland, J.F. 1971. Land subsidence in the Santa Clara Valley,
Alameda, San Mateo, and Santa Cruz Counties, California. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Misc. Field Stud. Map MF-336.
62 Ridgway, R. 1874. Notes upon American water birds. Am. Nat.
8:108-111.
63 Ridgway, R. 1880. On Rallus longirostris, Bodd., and its
geographical races. Bull. Nuttall Ornithol. Club 5:138-140.
64 Ridgway, R. and H. Friedmann. 1941. The birds of North and
Middle America. Part IX, Cranes, rails and sun-bitterns. U.S.
Natl. Mus. Bull. 50.
65 Ripley, S.D. 1984. Rails of the World: A monograph of the Family
Rallidae. Smithsonian Instit. Press. Portfolio Edition. 31 pp.
66 Shellhammer, H.S. 1982. Salt Marsh Faunas: Panel discussion.
IN: Wetland Restoration and Enhancement in California. M.
Josselyn, ed. Tiburon Ctr. for Environ. Stud., Tech. Report #2.
67 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
and California Clapper Rail Recovery Plan. Draft Report to U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 70 pp.
68 Sibley, C.G. 1955. The response of salt marsh birds to extremely
high tides. Condor 57:241-242.
69 Spendlow, J.A. and H.R. Spendlow, Jr. 1980. Clapper rail kills
birds in net. J. Field Ornithol. 51:175-176.
70 Stewart, R.E. 1954. Migratory movements of the northern clapper
rail. Bird Banding 25:1-5.
71 Taylor, H.R. 1894. Among the clapper rail. Nidologist 1:153.
72 Test, F.H. and A.R. Test. 1942. Food of the California clapper
rail. Condor 44:228.
73 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1973. United States list of
endangered fauna. Off. of Endang. Sp. & Internatl. Activ. 22 pp.
74 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1974. Monthly activity report,
November 1974. Region 1, Portland, OR. 8 pp.
75 Varoujean, D.H. 1973. A study of the California clapper rail in
Elkhorn Slough, 1972. Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Special Wildl.
Invest. Project W-54-R-4. Final Rep., Job 11. 10 pp.
76 van Rossem, A.J. 1929. The status of some Pacific Coast clapper
rails. Condor 31:213-215.
77 Widjeskog, L. 1974. Clapper rail study. New Jersey Dept.
Environ. Proj., Div. Fish and Shell Fish Prog. Rep. W-53-R-7.
13 pp.
78 Wilbur, S.R. and R.E. Tomlinson. 1976. The literature of the
western clapper rails. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Spec. Sci.
Rep. Wildl. No. 194.
79 Williams, L. 1929. Notes on the feeding habits and behavior of
the California clapper rail. Condor 31:52-56.
80 Winter, J. and D. Erickson. 1977. Middle Pacific Coast Region
Am. Birds 31:218.
81 Winter, J. and S.A. Laymon. 1979. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 33:210.
82 Wythe, M.W. 1937. An additional record of the California clapper
rail away from marshes. Condor 39:44.
83 Yocom, C.F. and S.W. Harris. 1975. Status, habitat, and
distribution of the birds of Northwest California. Humboldt State
Univ., Arcata, Ca. 68 pp.
84 Hoffman, J.S. 1984. Estimates of future sea level rise. Pages
79-104. IN: Greenhouse effect on sea level rise. M.C. Barth and
J.B. Titus, eds. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 323 pp.
85 Nichols, E.H., J.E. Kloern, S.N. Luoma, and D.H. Peterson. 1986.
The modification of an estuary. Science 231(Feb.):567-573.
86 Evens, J.G. and G. Page. 1986. Predation on black rails during
high tides in salt marshes. Condor 88:107-109.
87 Anon. 1979. Protection and restoration of San Francisco Bay fish
and wildlife habitat. Vol. II. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. and CA
Dept. Fish & Game Rep. 33 pp + maps. (Avail. from: USFWS,
Sacramento, CA.)
88 Evens, J. 1986. Personal communication. Point Reyes Bird
Observatory, 49909 Shoreline Hwy., Stinson Beach, CA 94970.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
References - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
01 Adams, E. 1900. Notes on the California clapper rail. Condor
2:31-32.
02 American Birds regional files, 1954-1984. Middle Pacific Coast
Region. Provided by Ron LeValley, 1876 Ocean Dr., McKinleyville,
CA.
03 American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of the North
American birds, 5th ed. The Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore,
MD. 691 pp.
04 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of the North
American birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
05 Anonymous. 1936. Clapper rail. Gull 18(11):1.
06 Anonymous. 1937. Clapper rail vagrancy. Gull 19(3):2.
07 Applegarth, J.H. 1938. The ecology of the California clapper rail
on the South Arm of San Francisco Bay. M.S. Thesis, Stanford Univ.
153 pp.
08 Beck, R.H. 1894. Cooper Club meeting. Nidologist 1:122.
09 Beyer, F. 1979. Seventy-ninth Audubon Christmas bird count No.
1160. Benecia, Ca. Am. Birds 33:644.
10 Bolander, G.L. and B.D. Parmeter. 1978. Birds of Sonoma County,
California. Redwood Reg. Ornithol. Soc. 91 pp.
11 Brooks, A. 1940. The clapper rail of Morro Bay. Condor
42:126-127.
12 Bryant, H.C. 1915. California clapper rail breeds in Alameda salt
marsh. Calif. Fish and Game. 1:192.
13 California Department of Fish and Game. 1976. Mimeo checklist.
Birds of Suisun Marsh Area. 9 pp.
14 Cogswell, H.L. 1958. Middle Pacific Coast Region. Audubon Field
Notes 12:383.
15 Cogswell, H.L. 1977. Water birds of California. Univ. of Calif.
Press, Berkeley. 399 pp.
16 Cogswell, H.L. 1981. Population of birds using new tidal lagoons
compared to an outer tide flat on San Francisco Bay at Hayward,
California. Pages 67-141. IN: The Hayward Regional Marsh
Restoration: Biological succession during the first year following
dike removal. M. Josselyn and T. Niesen, eds. Tiburon Center for
Environmental Studies: Technical Report 1.
17 Cohen, D.A. 1899. Clapper rail in Alameda County. Bull. Cooper
Ornith. Club 1(1):31.
18 Cutler, B.D. and E.A. Pugh. 1962. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Audubon Field Notes 16:70.
19 Dawson, W.L. and J.H. Bowles. 1909. The birds of Washington.
Occidental Publishing Co., Seattle, WA. 997 pp.
20 DeGroot, D.S. 1927. The California clapper rail: Its nesting
habits, enemies and habitat. Condor 29:259-270.
21 DeSante, D. and D. Ainley. 1980. The avifauna of the South
Farallon Islands, California. Studies in Avian Biology No. 4.
Cooper Ornithol. Soc. 104 pp.
22 DeSante, D. and V. Remsen. 1972. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 26:901.
23 ESA/Madrone. 1982. Draft Environmental Impact Report. Tisconia
Marsh, San Rafael, California. Prepared for City of San Rafael.
24 Evens, J. 1977. Unpublished field notes. P.O. Box 839, Pt. Reyes
References - 5 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
Station, CA 94956.
25 Evens, J., R.A. Erickson, and R. LeValley. 1982. Middle Pacific
Coast Region. Am. Birds 36:213.
26 Evens, J. and R. LeValley. 1981. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 35:221.
27 Evens, J. and G. Page. 1983. The ecology of rail populations at
Corte Madera Ecological Reserve: With recommendations for
management. Report to Marin Audubon Society.
28 Faber, P. 1982. Report on the current status of Muzzi Marsh.
Report to Golden Gate Bridge, Highway & Transportation District.
29 Fraser, J.C. 1976. Steamboat Slough acquisition proposal. Memo.
to Chief of Oper. from Regional Mgr., CA. Dept. Fish Game, Rgn. 3.
30 Garrett, K. and J. Dunn. 1981. Birds of Southern California:
Status and distribution. Los Angeles Audubon Soc. Artisan Press,
Los Angeles, CA. 408 pp.
31 Gill, R. 1972. South San Francisco Bay breeding bird survey,
1971. CA. Dept. Fish Game, Spec. Wildl. Invest., Report No. 72-6.
32 Gill, R. 1977. Breeding avifauna of the south San Francisco Bay
estuary. Western Birds 8:1-12.
33 Gill, R., Jr. 1979. Status and distribution of the California
clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus). CA. Fish & Game.
65:36-49.
34 Gould, G. 1973. California clapper rail survey - 1973. Calif.
Dept. Fish Game, Special Wildlife Invest., Federal Aid in Wildlife
Restoration. Project W-54-R-5, Job 11-10. 6 pp.
35 Grinnell, J. 1913. Note on the palustrine faunas of west-central
California. Univ. of California Publ. in Zoology. 10:191-195.
36 Grinnell, J. 1915. A distributional list of the birds of
California. Pacific Coast Avifauna 11.
37 Grinnell, J. and A. Miller. 1944. The distribution of the birds
of California. Pacific Coast Avifauna 27. 608 pp.
38 Grinnell, J. and M.W. Wythe. 1927. Directory of the bird-life of
the San Francisco Bay region. Pacific Coast Avifauna 18.
39 Gull Moss, J. 1980. Winter populations of the California clapper
rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in the San Francisco Bay
National Wildlife Refuge 1979-1980. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Rep.
40 Harris, S.W. 1984. Field checklist of Northwest California birds:
Del Norte, Humboldt, n. Mendocino, w. Trinity and w. Siskiyou
Counties. Redwood Region Audubon Soc., Eureka, California.
41 Harvey, T.E. 1980. California clapper rail survey, 1978-1979.
Calif. Dept. Fish Game. Project E-W-3. Job Final Report, Job
V-1.8 (July 1980).
42 Harvey, T.E. 1980. A breeding season survey of the California
clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in San Francisco Bay.
Final Report November 30, 1980.
43 Harvey, T.E. 1981. A nonbreeding season study of the California
clapper rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in San Francisco Bay.
Final Report March 31, 1981.
44 Hubbard, S., Jr. 1892. Additions to the birds of Gray's Harbor
region. Zoe 3:140-144.
45 Jencks, F.M. 1930. August field notes. Gull 12(9):3-4.
46 Jewett, S.G., W.P. Taylor, W.T. Shaw, and J.W. Aldrich. 1953.
Birds of Washington State. Univ. of Wash. Press, Seattle. 767 pp.
References - 6 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
47 Josselyn, M. 1983. The ecology of the San Francisco Bay tidal
marshes: A community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Div. of
Biological Serv., Washington D.C. FWS/OBS-83/23. 102 pp.
48 Josselyn, M.N. and J.W. Buccholz. 1984. Marsh restoration in San
Francisco Bay: A guide to design and planning. Tech. Rep. #3,
Tiburon Ctr. for Environ. Stud., San Francisco State Univ. 104 pp.
49 Kimball, H.H. 1922. Bird records from California, Arizona and
Guadalupe Island. Condor 24:96-97.
50 Laymon, S.A. 1979. Middle Pacific Coast Region. Am. Birds
33:803.
51 Laymon, S.A. and W.D. Shuford. 1980. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 34:196.
52 LeValley, R. and J. Evens. 1981. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 35:332.
53 LeValley, R. and D. Roberson. 1983. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 37:220.
54 Lindsdale, J. 1936. Occurrence of the California clapper rail
away from marshes. Condor 38:216.
55 Littlejohn, C. 1922. Diminutions in numbers of birds formerly
common in San Mateo County, California. Gull 4:2.
56 Milton, W.C. 1972. A breeding survey of the California clapper
rail in the Emoryville Crescent. Univ. Calif., Berkeley.
57 Moffitt, J. 1940. Clapper rail project. Gull 22:45.
58 Moffitt, J. 1941. Notes on the food of the California clapper
rail. Condor 43:270-273.
59 Nichols, D.R. and N.A. Wright. 1971. Preliminary map of the
historic margins of marshlands, San Francisco Bay, California.
U.S. Geol. Survey. Open File Report Basic Data Contribution 9.
10 pp and map.
60 Orr, R. 1939. Fall wanderings of clapper rails. Condor
41:151-152.
61 Orr, R. 1942. A study of the birds of the Big Basin Region of
Califronia. Am. Midl. Nat. 27:273-337.
62 Parmeter, H.E. 1938. California clapper rail. Gull 20:46-47.
63 Page, G., W.D. Shuford, J. Evens, and L. Stenzel. 1983. The
distribution and abundance of the aquatic birds in wetlands of the
Point Reyes to Bodega area. Report to the Pt. Reyes - Farallones
Marine Sanctuary, Point Reyes Bird Observatory. 119 pp + append.
64 San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission and T.E.
Harvey. 1983. Aquatic and Wildlife Resources of Richardson Bay.
Special Area Plan Study. Sept. 1983. 47 pp.
65 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse
and California Clapper Rail Recovery Plan, Draft. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 70 pp.
66 Sibley, C.G. 1952. The birds of the South San Francisco Bay
region. San Jose State Univ. Mimeo. 44 pp.
67 Silliman, O.P. 1915. Range of the California clapper rail.
Condor 17:201.
68 Storer, T.I. 1915. Additional records of the California clapper
rail and red phalarope in California. Condor 17:98.
69 Taylor, H.R. 1894. Among the clapper rail. Nidologist 1:153.
70 Varoujean, D.H. 1973. A study of the California clapper rail in
Elkhorn Slough, 1972. Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Special Wildl.
References - 7 (DRAFT) - References
Species RAIL, CLAPPER, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101004
Date 14 MAR 96
Invest. Project W-54-R-4. Final Rep., Job 11. 10 pp.
71 Wheelock, I.G. 1910. Birds of California. A.C. McClurg and Co.,
Chicago, IL.
72 Wilbur, S.R. and R.E. Tomlinson. 1976. The literature of the
western clapper rails. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Spec. Sci.
Rep. Wildl. No. 194.
73 Williams, L. 1957. Middle Pacific Coast Region. Audubon Field
Notes 11:427.
74 Winter, J. and S.A. Laymon. 1979. Middle Pacific Coast Region.
Am. Birds 33:210.
75 Wythe, M.W. 1937. An additional record of the California clapper
rail away from marshes. Condor 39:44.
76 Yocom, C.F. and S.W. Harris. 1975. Status, habitat, and
distribution of the birds of Northwest California. Humboldt State
Univ., Arcata, Ca. 68 pp.
77 Zucca, J.J. 1954. A study of the California clapper rail.
Wasmann J. Biol. 12:135-153.
78 Evens, J.G. and R.P. Henderson. 1986. Monitoring environmental
distubance and incidental take of Threatened or Endangered species
on Reyes and Roe Islands, Suisun Bay, California, during seismic
exploration by Chevron USA, Inc. On file at: Sacramento
Endangered Species Office, Sacramento Field Station.
79 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Endangered species formal
consultation on the proposed seismic mineral exploration by Chevron
USA, Inc. on Roe, Ryer, Seal, Freeman, and Middle Ground Isalnds,
Naval Weapons Station, Concord, Contra Costa, and Solano County,
California. (11000/14-134C) (Case # 1-1-85-F-53). [Letter from
William F. Shake, USFWS to Commander O. Everette, U.S. Navy,
Jan. 1, 1985.] On file at: Sacramento Endangered Species Office.
References - 8