(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
OTHER COMMON NAMES - TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA;TERN and LEAST
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CHARADRIIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - LARIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - STERNA,
SPECIES AND SSP - ANTILLARUM, BROWNI
SCIENTIFIC NAME - STERNA ANTILLARUM BROWNI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
California Least Tern
Sterna antillarum browni Mearns, 1916
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Charadriiformes FAMILY: Laridae
The California least tern is a small seabird ca. 21.5 - 24 cm in
length with a 51 cm wingspread (11). In breeding plumage, it has a
white forehead, black nape and crown extending forward through the eye
and lores to the base of the upper mandible. The back, scapulars,
tertials and rump are pale gray; the outer rectrices are mainly white,
the rest uniformly pale gray. The outer 2-3 primaries are mainly
black with a white edge to the inner web; the inner primaries,
secondaries, alula and wing coverts are pale gray. Underparts are
white. Bill is yellow with a varying amount of black at the tip.
Legs and feet are reddish-orange (26).
The American least tern was first described from the West Indies
by Lesson in 1847 (20). It was considered specifically distinct from
the little tern of Europe, Sterna albifrons Pallas (34), and named
Sternula antillarum. In 1921 Hartert combined the two species and the
California least tern became the subspecies S. albifrons browni (19).
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
The common name, however, continued in use. In 1983 the taxonomy was
again revised, and the least tern was restored to the status of a full
species (02) based on research that documented differences in
vocalizations and morphology (24). The scientific name is now Sterna
antillarum.
Three subspecies of the least tern have been recognized in the
U.S. - antillarum on the east and gulf coasts, athalassos in the
Mississippi drainage system, and browni on the west coast (01). The
west coast subspecies was first described by Mearns in 1916; the type
specimen is in the U.S. National Museum, #134773 (29).
Several synonyms in use before Hartert revised the taxonomy in
1921 were listed by him (19):
Sternula melanorhynchus Lesson 1847 (an error - a juvenile
mistaken for an adult form)
Sterna frenata Gambel 1848
Sterna minuta americana Sundevall 1869
For a complete description of plumages, both adult and juvenile,
see reference 26. Color photographs can be found in Natural History
90:62-72, 1981, and Western Birds 14:71-72 & cover, 1983. The Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History has a good collection of
study skins of California least terns. The California least tern is
also referred to simply as the least tern.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The California least tern, Sterna antillarum browni, is listed
as Endangered in California and Mexico pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973, as amended (50 CFR 17.11) and is protected
wherever found. The California least tern is also listed on the
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (50 CFR 10.13) at the specific level, Sterna
antillarum.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS - is responsible for the management/recovery, listing,
and law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD - is responsible for cooperation in the
management/recovery and protection of this tern
where it occurs on DOD lands.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: California
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: California Department of Fish and Game
STATE STATUTE: California Endangered Species Act; Fish and Game
Code, Chapter 1.5, Article 1, Sec. 2050.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The IUCN Red Data Book lists the California least tern as
Endangered. The California least tern (S. albifrons browni) is listed
by the U.S. in the Convention on Nature Protection and Wilife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere Annex (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
California least terns are important in non-consumptive
recreational pursuits by bird enthusiasts.
70/06/02:35 FR 08491/08498 - Listed Endangered, US list foreign wildl.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed rule, add US list native wildl.
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/ - Listed Endangered, US list native wildl.
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Five year review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
COASTAL
OCEANIC
LAND USE -
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and Util
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
Dry Salt Flats
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Transitional Areas
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic
Riverine, lower perennial UB3
Riverine, lower perennial UB2
Riverine, lower perennial UB1
Riverine, lower perennial UB
Riverine, lower perennial
1UB
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal UB
Riverine, tidal
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal BB
Marine, subtidal OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Beaches, dunes, sand bars and spits on the ocean shore are the
typical and preferred nesting habitat for the California least tern
(08,09). Colonies have often been located close to estuaries (23),
even long after the estuary has been destroyed. Saltflats in
saltmarshes are also used (14,32).
The mouths of rivers, particularly those with estuaries, were
(and are) favored nesting locations. Few estuaries remain in southern
California: Most have been dredged, filled or otherwise altered
beyond recognition, for example Marina del Rey, Alamitos Bay, Santa
Ana River mouth, and Mission Bay, but there are least tern nesting
colonies at each of these places (09).
Habitat not only includes open expanses of sand, but also mud or
dumped rubbish near a lagoon or estuary, including land fills, spoil
banks and parking lots. At one time sandy open beaches were used.
But, all colonies in such situations have been abandoned due to human
activities and developments along the California coast, with the
Habitat Associations - 1 concomitant disturbance, roads and pollution. The tern is,
nevertheless, remarkably tolerant of human interference and now nests
in highly modified areas adjacent to mixed urban, residential and
industrial areas. However, the absence of good feeding grounds in
the vicinity may well be a limiting factor (35). (See field
N-OCCURRENCE for specific areas and associations.) The species also
occurs adjacent to transportation facilities (airports) and county
parks.
Foraging habitat encompasses any waters within 5 km of a nesting
site where small fish may be caught. The ocean (particularly
near-shore waters), river mouths, saltmarshes, marinas, river
channels, lakes and ponds are all used for foraging (06,09). There
are several post-breeding areas used regularly for foraging and
flocking by adults and juveniles before migration. Among these are
both natural lakes and reservoirs.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The staple diet of the California least tern is small fish (05,
22,32), usually <5.0 cm in length (05). The birds have not been
observed eating any other food. Many species of fish are
consumed - only those with pre-opercular or fin spines or whose body
depth exceeds the birds' gape are apparently unsuitable (05). The
species most commonly eaten are the northern anchovy (Engraulis
mordax) (05,22,32), topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) (05,22,32), shiner
perch (Cymatogaster aggregata) (22), California killifish (Fundulus
parvipinnis) (32), deepbody anchovy (Anchoa compress) (32), and
jacksmelt (Atherinops californiensis) (05). Atwood and Kelly, in a
study of fish dropped at nesting colonies, found 19 species they
considered suitable for least tern consumption (05).
Chicks are fed smaller specimens than their parents eat (22) but
not different species (05).
Least terns nesting on beaches and foraging mostly in the ocean
(in near-shore waters) eat more northern anchovies than any other
species of fish, while those nesting and foraging in estuaries feed
more on topsmelt and California killifish (05).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Least terns are colonial but do not nest in as dense a
concentration as other tern species. Although nests have been found
as close together as 0.8 m (16), usual minimum distances between nests
are 3.0 - 4.6 m, and average distances are much greater (23,36). In
northern Santa Barbara County, where nesting occurs in vast expanses
of coastal dune habitat, as few as 15 nesting pairs can be widely
scattered in colonies with a 1.6 km perimeter or more (04). The area
around the nest is defended during incubation. Aggressive behavior is
observed when an intruding bird lands too close to the nest; the
intruder is scolded and driven off, but fighting rarely ensues (21,
36). Davis calculated the minimum territory size around the nest as
ca. 40 cm (16). After hatching, the chicks leave the nest scrape
within 1-2 days (23) and nest defense ceases.
The terns flock together amicably before the nesting season, at
night roosts during the nesting season, and at fishing sites after the
nesting season (21).
There is no indication that feeding is territorial (21).
PERIODICITY:
During the nesting season, peaks of foraging activity are
observed in the early morning and pre-dusk hours (13).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The California least tern is a migratory species. The route in
California is along the coast in both spring and fall. The terns
arrive in coastal San Diego County 2 - 3 weeks before they appear in
Los Angeles County (04,14,21,30). Concentations of migrating birds
are seen in the coastal lagoons in August - color bands have
identified them as nesting at more northern colonies in Los Angeles
and Orange Counties (04,14,21). The first arrivals in California
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
occur usually in early to mid-April. Fall migration usually begins by
August (21). Late-lingering fall migrants have been observed into
October (04), but usually the terns have left California by the 15th
of September (21).
South of the California border, the migratory route is not known,
but is assumed to be coastal. From wintering grounds in Mexico and
south it is believed they travel along the coast of mainland Mexico,
cross the Gulf of California to the tip of the Baja California
peninsula, and then head north along the west coast of Baja. This
assumption is based on sightings of least terns in March and April in
Colima, Mexico (04), in the Gulf (03), and in the large lagoons in
western Baja California (03,17).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Least terns nest preferentially on sandy beaches and need no
vegetative cover. However, they frequently choose a spot next to a
piece of flotsam or other landmark, as if to facilitate nest
recognition (04,14,21,30). They will nest in places with sparse
vegetation (natural or weedy) but avoid those where the cover has
become too dense (04,14,21,30). A small amount of vegetative cover is
desireable for the chicks to hide in after they become mobile.
Natural dune plants and halophytes at the edges of the saltmarsh are
commonly used, but so are weedy invaders (04,14,21,30).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Least terns make a simple scrape in the sand in which to lay
their eggs (23). Nests are sometimes lined later with shell
fragments, small stones and occasionally sticks (14,21,30) but may be
left unadorned.
When nesting in dunes or even small hillocks of sand, the birds
usually choose heights rather than valleys, where sightlines are good
(16). This is presumably a predator defense.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Early in the breeding season, least terns engage in aerial
courtship displays (fish flights and aerial glides). After the pair
bond is formed, it is reinforced by courtship feeding, with the male
bringing fish to the waiting female (24,36). Copulation is usually
preceded by a "parade", then vigorous head wagging (with the male
holding and flicking a fish), and at the moment of cloacal contact the
female grabs and eats the fish (23,36).
Minimum breeding age is 2 years, these young birds arrive later
than the older ones and nest in late June and July (27). Only a small
portion of the 2-year old population breeds, most of the birds are 3
or 4 years of age at first breeding (27).
There is one breeding season, from May through August (25), and
only one brood is raised. However, the birds will renest if eggs or
chicks are lost (27).
The pair bond is maintained through the breeding season (unless
one of the pair dies) and sometimes for several years. However, many
birds "divorce" from one season to the next, some of them more than
once (21).
The incubation period is 20-25 days (usually 22); the average
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
clutch size is two with a range of 1-3 (23). Smaller clutches are
layed by late nesting birds, including renesting birds and first time
breeders (2 years of age) (27).
PARENTAL CARE:
Least tern chicks are precocial (in terms of mobility), leaving
the nest scrape 1 - 2 days after hatching (23). However, they are
totally dependent on their parents for food until well after fledging
(25). During the 18-20 day period before fledging, when the chicks
range freely around the nesting area, one parent usually stands guard
while the mate is foraging (21). For several weeks after fledging the
juveniles practice fishing and continue to be fed by their parents at
favored roosting and fishing sites that are used every year (21).
Parents continue to feed their offspring during migration and perhaps
even on the wintering grounds (33).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Current limiting factors include lack of suitable nesting areas
in parts of the birds' range, severe predation at certain colonies,
and periodic food shortages.
Although new breeding sites have been developed in the past 10
years, none have been on beaches, the traditional preferred nesting
habitat of the least tern. Nest sites in saltmarshes (e.g., Cerritos
Lagoon, Anaheim Bay, Bolsa Chica) are subject to severe predation, and
and require elaborate protective devices and constant monitoring to be
successful (04,21,30). There are long stretches of beach that once
hosted least tern colonies where new nesting sites should be
established. However, there is not a single beach nesting site
between Venice in Los Angeles County and Huntington Beach State Park
in Orange County (09).
Predators have caused heavy chicks mortality at Bolsa Chica,
Huntington Beach, Santa Margarita River, Mission Bay and Chula Vista
Wildlife Reserve for the past several years (14,30).
The food supply is a third limiting factor. In 1982 there was a
dearth of the small fish that comprise the least tern's diet. The
number of successful fledglings was reduced considerably that season
(09,14,26,30). In 1984 the number of breeding pairs that arrived in
the spring dropped for the first time since 1973. The reduction was
apparent throughout the breeding range (12) and the most plausible
explanation was a dearth of food in the wintering area.
Survival rate, recovery potential and other parameters are under
study as part of a long-term research program (25).
The recovery plan calls for a population increase to 1200
breeding pairs distributed in at least 20 secure coastal ecosystems
throughout the 1982 breeding range before delisting can be considered
(08,09).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The least tern's diet is fish. The species most commonly eaten
are listed above under Food Habits. A shortage of these fish directly
impacts the tern's breeding success. In 1982 a food shortage resulted
in a much reduced crop of fledglings (See Population Biology, above).
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse
Existing
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The decline in numbers of the California least tern was
apparently a gradual one (35). There are no reliable records for
numbers of pairs early in the century, but the construction of the
railroad and Pacific Coast Highway, both along previously undisturbed
beaches in southern California, increased human disturbance and began
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
a steady erosion of the secluded beach-nesting habitat the terns
require (35). Because the birds lay their eggs on the sand,
preferably on ocean-fronting beaches, they are extremely vulnerable to
disturbance, and freedom from disturbance is one of the requisites for
successful nesting. Adults incubating eggs fly up in alarm at any
intruder into the colony; parents feeding chicks will not do so if
there is a disturbance in the colony (21). By the 1940's most tern
colonies were gone from the beaches of L.A. and Orange Counties (10),
and they were considered sparse everywhere (18).
The post-war boom in housing in the late 1950's put still more
pressure on the dwindling tern colonies, as the beaches became more
crowded and disturbance from recreational activities, including
off-road vehicle use, increased. Shoreline/beach modification and
wetland filling for development further reduced habitat and increased
disturbance. Estuaries, which serve as feeding grounds for this tern,
have been and are being altered, at least in part, by the effects of
jettys and by the channel modification and siltation that dredging and
agricultural practices cause.
The mouths of rivers, particularly those with estuaries, were
(and are) favored nesting locations. Few estuaries remain in southern
California, most have been dredged, filled or otherwise altered beyond
recognition, for example Marina del Rey, Alamitos Bay, Santa Ana River
mouth, and Mission Bay, but there are least tern nesting colonies at
each of these places (09).
In the early 1960's a small fenced enclosure was erected at
Huntington Beach State Park for the few remaining pairs of a colony
that once numbered at least 600 pairs (31). This was the first
protective measure taken (21). Since 1973, when the California Least
Tern Recovery Team began to function, protection has been achieved at
many more nesting sites, and some new nesting areas have been created
(08,09).
In 1973, the first year a census was taken of the breeding
population in California, 600 pairs were estimated (07). The numbers
increased slowly but steadily from 1976 on, reaching 1,200 pairs in
1983 (09), but then dropped suddenly and sharply in 1984 to 1,000
pairs. The cause of this setback is unknown, but is probably related
to the wintering grounds in Mexico and south.
The problem of human disturbance at nest sites is under
reasonable control, but a new concern has arisen in conjunction with
the increase in colony size. Predators have found the eggs and chicks
a good food source; American kestrels, feral cats, red foxes, American
crows, coyotes and Norway rats are some of the major predators (09,28,
30). Another problem appeared in 1982 when there was a shortage of
the small fish the terns eat. The cause of this shortage is unknown.
The diminished food supply resulted in delayed nesting, smaller clutch
size, lagging chick growth rate, emaciated and dead chicks and,
ultimately, a reduced crop of fledglings (05,12,28).
Despite these problems, the California least tern is doing quite
well at present, thanks to good management and annual monitoring.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Recovery Plan for the
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
California Least Tern. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
58 pp.
A revised recovery plan is being prepared (September 1986).
The primary objective of the recovery plan for the California
least tern is to restore and maintain the breeding population at
self-sustaining levels of at least 1,200 pairs distributed in 20
colonies. Delisting of the species may be considered if the 1,200
breeding pair population is attained and if each of 20 wetland
ecosystems have sufficiently secure habitat to support at least one
colony of terns. No criteria was formulated for reclassifying to
Threatened.
The recovery activities necessary to achieve the primary
objective are:
1. Provide adequate breeding habitat by:
a. Implementing habitat management plans at existing colonies;
b. Securing nesting habitat (currently privately owned) through
acquisition, easements, MOU or other means;
c. Identifying special site protection needs;
d. Securing alternate nesting areas for vulnerable colonies;
e. Securing at least five nesting sites in Mission Bay;
f. Restoring or creating habitat through removal of native
vegetation, creating artificial shelters for chicks,
restoring historic sites, constructing alternate nesting
sites, and limiting human access and activities (e.g.,
horseback riding, and off-road vehicle use);
g. Minimizing mortality through fencing and signs to limit
access by humans and domestic animals, and
h. minimizing predation. Predators may include coyote, Norway
rat, striped skunk, longtail weasel, common raven, American
crow, gulls and domestic (and possibly feral) dogs.
2. Provide adequate feeding habitat by:
a. Maintaining high water quality, preventing fill and drainage
projects;
b. Restoring/improving tidal flow in wetlands; and
c. Increasing food fish populations in degraded or potential
feeding areas.
3. Protect important non-nesting, feeding and roosting habitats from
detrimental land or water use changes. Maintain high water
quality (controlling agricultural runoff, sewage effluent and
herbicide use), minimize tideland fill and drainage projects, and
restore or improve tidal flow in wetlands (stream channel
modification) to provide the needed protection.
4. Encourage protection of habitat and populations in Mexico.
5. Monitor populations to determine status, distribution, and
progress of species management.
6. Designate "Critical Habitat".
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
7. Determine effects of pollutants and conduct basic research on
life history.
8. Enforce Federal and State laws and regulations (e.g., to protect
terns from harassment or indiscriminant killing), and
9. Develop and implement a public information and education program.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species TERN, LEAST, CALIFORNIA
Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of North
American birds, 5th ed. 691 pp.
02 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North
American birds, 6th ed. 877 pp.
03 Anderson, Daniel W. 1985. Personal communication. Div.
Wildlife/Fisheries, Univ. of California, Davis, CA 95616.
04 Atwood, Jonathan L. 1985. Personal communication. Dept. of
Biology, Univ. of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024.
05 Atwood, J.L. and P.R. Kelly. 1984. Fish dropped on breeding
colonies as indicators of least tern food habits. Wilson Bull.
96:34-47.
06 Atwood, J.L. and D.E. Minsky. 1983. Least tern foraging ecology
at three major California breeding colonies. Western Birds
14:57-72.
07 Bender, K. 1972. California least tern census and nesting survey,
1973. (Avail. from: State of Calif., The Resources Agency, Calif.
Dept. Fish Game, Sacramento, CA.)
08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. California Least Tern
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
58 pp.
09 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In prep. Revised California Least
Tern Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Sacramento,
CA.
10 Cogswell, H.L. 1947. Southern California Region. Aud. Field
Notes 1:188-190.
11 Cogswell, H.L. 1977. Waterbirds of California. Univ. Calif.
Press, Berkeley.
12 Collins, Charles T. 1985. Personal communication. Dept. of
Biology, Cal. State Univ., Long Beach, CA 90804.
13 Collins, C.T., K.E. Bender, and D.D. Rypka. 1979. Report of the
feeding and nesting habits of the California least tern in the
Santa Ana River marsh area, Orange County, CA. (Avail. from: U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Los Angeles Dist.)
14 Cooper, Elizabeth. 1985. Pers. comm. Coronado, CA 92118.
15 Craig, A. 1971. Survey of California least tern nesting sites.
(Avail. from: State of Calif., The Resources Agency, Dept. Calif.
Fish Game, Sacramento, CA.)
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Species Id ESIS101005
Date 14 MAR 96
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