(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
OTHER COMMON NAMES - SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA;SWIFTLET, CAROLINE; SWIFTLET, CAROLINES;SWIFTLET, GRAY; SWIFTLET, LOWLAND; SWIFTLET, MAURITIUS;SWIFTLET, NEST, EDIBLE; SWIFTLET, NEST, EDIBLE, GUAM; SWIFTLET, UNIFORM; SWIFTLET, CAVE, GUAM; SWIFTLET, MOSSY-NEST; SWIFTLET, ISLAND; SWIFTLET and VANIKORO; YAYAGUAK
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - APODIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - APODIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - AERODRAMUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - VANIKORENSIS, BARTSCHI
SCIENTIFIC NAME - AERODRAMUS VANIKORENSIS BARTSCHI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Mariana Gray Swiftlet
Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi (Mearns, 1909)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Apodiformes FAMILY: Apodidae
The Mariana gray swiftlet has sooty black upper parts with a
slightly paler rump (01). The underparts are dark gray but with a
brownish tinge (01,02). Some white is present at the base of the
feathers in the loreal region (01). The tarsi are naked and the
irises are dark hazel. The plumage of both sexes is alike. Weights
of 21 birds averaged 7.4 grams (range = 6.4 to 9.0 grams) (03,04,
05). Other measurements include: wing, average of 107.6 mm (06) and
108 mm (02); tail, average of 52.3 mm (02,05); exposed culmen, average
of 4.0 mm (05); tarsus, average of 10.4 mm (05), and wingspan, maximum
of 233 mm (05).
Listed below are taxonomic names and synonyms that have been
used to describe A. v. bartschi (02,07,08,25).
Hirundo vanikorensis Quoy & Gaimard 1830
Collocalia inquietus Kittlitz 1836
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
Collocalia fuciphaga Sclater 1865
Collocalia nidifica Gray 1869
Collocalia vanicorensis Finsch 1876
Collocalia fuchphaga Wheeler 1900
Collocalia fuciphaga fuciphaga Oberholser 1906
Collocalia unicolor amelis Oberholser 1906
Collocalia bartschi Mearns 1909
Collocalia fuciphaga tachyptera Oberholser 1912
Collocalia unicolor bartschi Kuroda 1922
Collocalia fuciphaga bartschi Mathews 1927
Collocalia vanikorensis bartschi Mayr 1936
Collocalia germani bartschi Mayr 1937
Collocalia inexpectata bartschi Peters 1940
Collocalia inexpectata Strophlet 1946
Collocalia vanikorensis Owen 1977
Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi Pratt, Bruner and
Berrett 1979
Collocalia francica bartschi Howard and Moore 1980
Aerodramus inquieta bartschi Edwards 1982
Baker (02) lists the following specimens: 21 specimens from Guam
and one from Rota in the National Museum of Natural History; and 18
specimens from Guam and 8 from Saipan in the American Museum of
Natural History. Also, 2 specimens are in the collection of the
Bishop Museum, Honolulu (27). An unknown number of specimens may
exist in other collections. The type specimen of A. v. bartschi is
from Guam and is located in the National Museum of Natural History
(02). Photographs of Vanikoro Swiftlets are held by the Guam Division
of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Agana,
Guam.
The taxonomy of this group of swiftlets is in much debate.
Virtually all current authorities recognize bartschi as either a
subspecies (usually of vanikorensis) or as its own monotypic species.
The generic name continues to be debated as well (25).
Several common names have been applied to this species. These
include edible nest swiftlet (02,06), Guam edible nest swiftlet (09),
gray swiftlet (01), uniform swiftlet (24,26), Mauritus swiftlet (24),
Caroline swiftlet (24), Carolines swiftlet (24), Guam cave swiftlet
(26), mossy-nest swiftlet (26), island swiftlet (26), and the lowland
swiftlet (26). The species was previously listed pursuant to the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended under the common name
Vanikoro swiftlet. "Yayaguak" is the local name for swiftlets
used by Chamorro residents in the Mariana Islands.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Mariana gray swiftlet (Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi) has
been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884;
16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this
status in the Territory of Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
TERRITORY: Guam
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (GU) Department of Agriculture, Division
of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Agana,
Guam.
STATUTE: Endangered Species Act of Guam, September 1981;
Guam Public Law 15-36, June 18, 1979.
COMMONWEALTH: Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands
DESIGNATED STATUS: None
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Fish
and Wildlife.
STATUTE: P.L. 2-51, Second Legislature of the Commonwealth of
the Northern Mariana Islands (1981): prohibits the take
of non-game species, including the swiftlet.
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: None.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES nor by IUCN (Red Data Book
1981).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Recreation - nonconsumptive. The subspecies is important in
nonconsumptive recreational pursuits (bird watching). Guano of
swiftlets is used as fertilizer by local farmers.
79/05/18:44 FR 29128/29130 - Notice of review of status.
79/06/13:44 FR 33915 - Extension of comment period.
83/11/29:48 FR 53729/53733 - Proposed listing.
84/08/27:49 FR 33881/33885 - Listing, final rule.
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Orchards, Groves, Vineyards, Nurseries,
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Mariana gray swiftlets have been reported to forage over a
wide variety of habitats including grasslands, limestone forest,
ravine forest, and coconut groves (02,06,10,14,18,19). These habitats
on Guam have been described in detail by Fosberg (20) and Stone (21).
On Saipan, they also feed over tangan-tangan (Leucaena leucocephala)
forests (19). Clifflines, grassy hills, and grassy ravines are among
the preferred foraging habitats (02,10,18).
On Guam, the colony inhabiting the eastern side of the Naval
Magazine feeds over savanna grasslands dominated by Miscanthus and
ravine forest. Birds from this colony also feed over several types of
seasonally-flooded wetlands. These areas are designated in the
National Wetlands Inventory as palustrine, forested, broad-leaved
evergreen (P0FO3) and palustrine, emergent, persistent (P0EM1).
No specific information exists on the habitat use of Mariana gray
swiftlets on Saipan and Aguijan. On Oahu, swiftlets occur over
forested hills and valleys (22).
Mariana gray swiftlets roost exclusively in caves. All caves
reported to be used by swiftlets are natural (02,15,19) except for
one in Hawai'i which was a 30 to 40 meter long man-made irrigation
tunnel (22). According to Pratt (26) they inhabit natural and
man-made caves, such as abandoned World War II gun implacements on
Micronesia. Caves used by A. v. bartschi for roosting and
nesting are formed from limestone rock and occur in limestone forest
and ravine forest (01,19). Colonies of swiftlets are also known to
roost in at least three limestone sinkholes.
There does not appear to be any seasonal changes in habitat use
by Mariana gray swiftlets.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Caves, dry
G
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
A. v. bartschi feeds on insects captured in flight (01,23).
Detailed food studies have not been conducted and insects species that
are eaten are not known.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Little is known about the movements or home ranges of
A. v. bartschi. On Guam, birds thought to be from the colony at the
Naval Magazine are seen feeding most often within 1.5 kilometers of
their roosting cave (19). A few sightings occur up to five
kilometers away (19). Swiftlets forage singularly, in pairs, or in
flocks of up to several hundred birds (01,02,06,14,19,23). It is
seems unlikely that individuals have or defend preferred feeding
territories, since they are dependent at times upon shifting winds to
concentrate the prey at different times and places.
Mariana gray swiftlets are highly colonial roosters and nesters.
They typically form colonies numbering from a few individuals to
several thousand birds (15). A colony on Guam contains
250-300 birds (19) while on Saipan there are at least 200 birds (15).
PERIODICITY:
Mariana gray swiftlets roost in caves at night. Some birds may
return to caves during the day to rest or for nesting. Swiftlets
are diurnal and crepuscular feeders (01). Marshall (06) noted on
Saipan that large flocks of A. v. bartschi fed for only a few weeks
in any one part of the island. He believed their movements may have
been seasonal.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Swiftlets are not known to be migratory. Marshall (06)
describes their former presence on Tinian as being nomadic.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Mariana gray swiftlets roost exclusively in caves. All caves
reported to be used by swiftlets are natural (02,15,19) except for
one in Hawai'i which was a 30 to 40 meter long man-made irrigation
tunnel (22). According to Pratt (26) they inhabit natural and
man-made caves, such as abandoned World War II gun implacements in
Micronesia. Most caves used by A. v. bartschi in the Marianas are
horizontal with one or two large entrances (15,19). Caves may be as
short as 10 meters in length, but are normally much longer (19). Cave
chambers used for nesting are four meters or more in height (19,15).
Colonies of swiftlets are also known to roost in at least three
limestone sinkholes. One of these on Guam was 18 meters wide and
23 meters deep (02). Two others on Saipan and Guam were 7 to 10
meters deep (15) and 41 meters deep (19), respectively.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Caves used for nesting have been described above. Nests are
usually built in dark portions of caves (01,02,15). Cave ceilings
appear to be the preferred nest sites (01). Nests are often attached
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
to small underhanging ledges (02). Nests are composed of moss held
tightly together and sealed to the cave surface by copious amounts of
hardened mucus-like saliva (01). On Guam, nests are made of
Neckeropsis lepiniana (05), a moss that is common in forests near
nesting caves (01). In Hawai'i a liverwart (Herberta spp.) is used
as the preferred nesting material (superficially, it strongly
resembles Neckeropsis.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Clutches of A. v. bartschi contain single eggs laid between
January and July (01,02,15). Nesting possibly occurs during the
remainder of the year but has not been reported previously (01).
Nesting is not synchronous within colonies (01,02,15). Double
clutches or renesting attempts have not been observed (01). The
incubation period of Mariana grey swiftlets is at least 12 days (01).
Other breeding information is not available for these swiftlets.
PARENTAL CARE:
Young Mariana gray swiftlets are highly altricial. They require
two to three weeks to open their eyes and develop rudimentry feather
tracts (01). One nestling took 35 days to fledge (01). It is not
known whether both adults participate in incubation, brooding, or
feeding of the young (01).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The population biology of the Mariana gray swiftlet is not known.
Current limiting factors of populations are not understood but are
probably closely related to the reasons for the specues decline
(refer to field "N-REASON" - reason for status narrative).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
A. v. bartschi is not reported as having close interrelationships
with other species.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Adverse Artillery/Explosions
Existing Artillery/Explosions
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Many authors have referred to the past abundance of
A. v. bartschi on Guam and Rota (06,10,11,12,13). Reasons for the
decline of Mariana gray swiftlets are unknown but hypothesized causes
include pesticide poisoning, introduced predators, disease,
typhoons, and disturbance or permanent loss of nesting caves
(01,05,14,15).
To date, no infectious diseases have been isolated on Guam that
could account for the decline (16). Feral dogs, cats and rats
probably have little or no effect on swiftlets, which are aerial
feeders and cave nesters. However, the Brown tree snake
(Boiga irregularis), an introduced snake present only on Guam, is a
more likely predator. Data indicates that it is responsible for the
sharp decline in some of Guam's other native birds (16). Pesticides
residues are apparently not a current problem for swiftlets or their
prey on Guam but pesticides may have had some impact in the past (17).
Typhoons are a regular occurrence under which all species of native
wildlife in the Marianas have evolved. Typhoons might cause
temporary declines in the swiftlets populations but presumably would
not incur permanent losses. Caves were used for a variety of
defensive purposes by the Japenese military in World War II. During
the invasion of Saipan, Tinian and Guam, a number of caves were
destroyed or highly disturbed. These activities probably affected
swiftlets for at least a short period of time before reuse (05).
Guano has been mined from swiftlet caves on Rota, Aguijan, Tinian and
Saipan and this activity may have disturbed birds that were roosting
or nesting (15).
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Mariana Island's population
of the Vanikoro Swiftlet (Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi) Recovery
Plan. Agency Draft. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR.
67 pp.
The Marianas race of Vanikoro swiftlet has declined for
unknown reasons. The Vanikoro Swiftlet Recovery Plan now in
preparation emphasizes three recovery goals: (1) complete protection
of nesting and roosting caves, (2) development of a complete
understanding of limiting factors, and (3) reestablishment of
swiftlets to suitable habitat (i.e. historically used caves) within
the historical range of the species. Securing caves and a buffer
zone around each cave would involve transferring ownership or managing
authority to a conservation agency. Caves could then be mangaged to
reduce disturbance by people, and to do so may require constructing
barriers at cave entrances. It may also be necessary to "snake-proof"
caves by various means yet to be determined. Research on swiftlets
should receive high priority and would include general autecological
studies, determination of the causes of decline (potentially, the
Brown tree snake, pesticides, human disturbance, and diseases),
surveys for additional nesting caves,and continued censusing of known
swiftlet caves. Once cave management and research are well underway,
it may become feasible to reestablish swiftlets in abandoned caves,
though the techniques for doing this are yet unknown.
Recovery actions underway include: (1) surveys for nesting caves
and censusing of these caves and (2) transfer of lands encompassing
caves from the Marianas Public Land Corporation to the Division of
Fish and Wildlife, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Jenkins, J.M. 1983. The native forest birds of Guam. Ornith.
Monogr. No. 31. 61 pp.
02 Baker, R.H. 1951. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin,
evolution, and distribution. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist.
3:1-359.
03 Baker, R.H. 1948. Report on collections of birds made by United
States Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2 in the Pacific War area.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 107:1-74.
04 Taylor, M.E. Date (?). Unpubl. data. Div. of Aquatic and Wildl.
Res., P.O. Box 2950, Agana, Guam 96910.
05 Drahos, N. Date (?). Unpubl. data. Div. of Aquatic and Wildl.
Res., P.O. Box 2950, Agana, Guam 96910.
06 Marshall, J.T., Jr. 1949. The endemic avifauna of Saipan, Tinian,
Guam and Palau. The Condor 51:200-221.
07 Owen, R.P. 1977. A checklist of birds of Micronesia. Micronesica
13:65-81.
08 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett 1979. America's
unknown avifauna: The birds of the Mariana Islands. Amer. Birds
33:227-235.
09 Bowles, J. 1962. The Guam edible nest swiftlet. `Elepaio
23:14-15.
10 Seale, A. 1901. Report of a mission to Guam. Occas. Pap. Bernice
P. Bishop Mus. 1:17-128.
11 Stafford, W.E. 1902. Birds of the Mariana Islands and their
vernacular names. Osprey 6:39-42,65-70.
12 Baker, R.H. 1947. Size of bird populations at Guam, Mariana
Islands. Condor 49:124-125.
13 Hartin, M.H. 1961. Birds of Guam, observations July to Nov. 1960.
`Elepaio 22:34-38.
14 Engbring, J. and F.L. Ramsey. 1984. Distribution and abundance of
the forest birds of Guam: results of a 1981 survey. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-84/20. 54 pp.
15 Pratt, T.K. 1984. Land and freshwater bird investigations. Pages
87-100 In: Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration
Program, Annual Rept., FY 1984. CNMI Div. Fish and Wildl., Saipan.
137 pp.
16 Savidge, J.A. In Prep. The reasons for the decline of Guam's a
vifauna. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Illinois, Champaign-Urbana.
17 Grue, C.E., C.M. Fecko and A.J. Krynitsky. Pesticides
are not responsible for recent declines in native bird populations
on Guam. Micronesica.
18 Strophlet, J.J. 1946. Birds of Guam. Auk 53:539-540.
19 Wiles, G.J. Unpubl. data. Div. of Aquatic and Wildl. Res., P.O.
Box 2950, Agana, Guam 96910.
20 Fosberg, F.R. 1960. The vegetation of Micronesia. Bull. Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 119(1):1-75.
21 Stone, B.C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.
22 Shallenberger, R.J. and G.K. Vaughn 1978. Avifauna survey in the
central Koolau Range, Oahu. Ahuimanu Productions, Hawaii. 106 pp.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species SWIFTLET, GRAY, MARIANA
Species Id ESIS101011
Date 14 MAR 96
23 Engbring, J. and F.C. Ramsey. In Press. Pacific Islands
forest bird survey. Saipan, Tinian, Aguiguan, and Rota.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Honolulu, HI. 224 pp.
24 Association of Systematic Collections. 1980. Checklist of birds
of the United States and the U.S. Territories. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Wash., D.C. 72 pp.
25 American Ornithologist Union. 1983. Checklist of North American
birds. Allen Press, Inc., Kansas. 877 pp.
26 Pratt, Douglas. 1987. A field guide to the birds of Hawaii and
the tropical Pacific. Princeton Univ. Press, New Jersey.
409 pp. + 45 plates.
27 Pyle, Robert. 1987. Pers. comm. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Engbring, J. and F.C. Ramsey 1984. Unpubl. MS. Micronesian
forest bird survey, 1982. Saipan, Tinian, Aguiguan, and Rota.
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Honolulu, HI. 224 pp.
02 Pratt, T.K. 1984. Land and freshwater bird investigations. Pages
87-100. In: Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration
Program, Annual Rept., FY 1984. CNMI Div. Fish and Wildl., Saipan.
137 pp.
03 Shallenberger, R.J. and G.K. Vaughn. 1978. Avifauna survey in the
central Koolau Range, Oahu. Ahuimanu Productions, Hawaii. 106 pp.
04 Jenkins, J.M. 1983. The native forest birds of Guam. Ornith.
Monogr. No. 31. 61 pp.
05 Wiles, G.J. Unpublished Data. Division of Aquatic and Wildlife
Resources, P.O. Box 2950, Agana, Guam 96910.
06 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett. 1979. America's
unknown avifauna: The birds of the Mariana Islands. Amer. Birds
33:227-235.
07 Baker, R.H. 1951. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin,
evolution, and distribution. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist.
3:1-359.
08 Gleize, D.A. 1945. Birds of Tinian. Bull. Mass. Audubon Soc.
29:200.
09 Downs, T. 1946. Birds on Tinain in the Marianas. Trans. Kansas
Acad. Sci. 49:87-106.
10 Marshall, J.T., Jr. 1949. The endemic avifauna of Saipan, Tinian,
Guam and Palau. Condor 51:200-221.
11 Owen, R.P. 1974. Unpubl. Environmental impact study on the
terrestrial fauna and flora of Tinian with respect to the proposed
establishment of a U.S. military base on the island. Trust
Territory of the Pacific Islands, Koror, Palau. 21 pp.
12 Bowles, J. 1962. The Guam Edible Nest Swiftlet. `Elepaio 23:14-
15.
13 Woodside, D.H. 1970. Edible-nest Swiftlet. `Elepaio 31:28.
References - 2