(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN; MEGAPODE, MARIANAS; BIRD, INCUBATOR;BIRD, INCUBATOR, MICRONESIAN; MEGAPODE and LAPEROUSE'S; SASANGAT; SASNGAT;BEKAI
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - GALLIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - MEGAPODIIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MEGAPODIUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - LAPEROUSE,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - MEGAPODIUS LAPEROUSE
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Micronesian Megapode
Megapodius laperouse Gaimard, 1823
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Galliformes FAMILY: Megapodiidae
Megapodius laperouse is a small megapode from a genus of 9
species. They are small, stout, robust chicken-like birds standing
17.5-20.0 cm tall. Sexes are similar in color and plumage, possible
size difference with males being larger. General color is dark
greyish brown to brownish black with an ash grey or silver crest
pointing backward from the top of the head. Eye: large (9-10 mm
diam.), iris brown (04), tan (03), or orange (13). Beak: stout (25
mm long), bright yellow, chicken-like with large nostril and black
line down the top of the maxilla. Head: thinly feathered dark grey
with dark reddish bare skin at the gape of the beak and in a
well-developed gular patch. Sides of head: thinly feathered dark
grey exposing dark skin. Top of head: dark grey graduating to
lighter grey and silver in posterior crest. Crest: short pointed
feathers directed upward and backward to form a pointed top notch,
light grey or silvery. Mantle and back: covered with relatively
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
sparse, short, broad brownish grey feathers. Wings: uniform greyish
brown, short (185 mm), broad and rounded similar in size and shape to
ruffed-grouse wings. Tail: short (50-55 mm) slightly pointed dark
greyish brown above with brown to reddish brown undertail coverts.
Underparts: slightly lighter brownish grey than the back. Legs:
large, well-developed, sparsely feathered grey above, bright
yellow/orange below with prominent scales. Feet: large, powerful
with four bright yellow toes, black spots on dorsal surface of toes.
Claws: long, sharply pointed, light yellow. Total weight: 230-330
grams (01,02,03,04).
There are two subspecies recognized; M. laperouse laperouse
Gaimard, 1823 from the Mariana Islands and M. laperouse senex
Hartlaub, 1867 from the Palau Islands. The Palau subspecies is
distinguished by a lighter pearl grey crest and top of head that shows
a more marked contrast with the body than in M. l. laperouse. In
close examination M. l. laperouse has more olivaceous brown in the
wing coverts and scapulars and the underparts are generally more pale
than in M. l. senex (03,04). The Mariana subspecies has a dark ash
gray crest and top of head (04).
The species was first described from the Marianas by Gaimard in
1823 as Megapodius La Perouse (25). The Mariana subspecies has since
undergone a variety of minor name changes, variations of the species
name La Perouse. The subspecies laperousei was assigned in 1922 (30).
The subspecies in the Palaus was described in 1967 by Hartlaub as
M. senex (29). It was combined with the Mariana species in 1893 (31).
The following synonyms for M. l. laperouse and M. l. senex are
found in the literature (03).
Megapodius La Perouse Gaimard 1823,
Megapodius La Perousii Quoy and Gaimard 1824,
Megapodius La Peyrouse Lesson, 1828,
Megapodius laperousii Lesson, 1831,
Megapodius lapeyrousii Hartlaub, 1854,
Megapodius La Peyrousii Reichenbach, 1861,
Megapodius la-perousi Gray, 1864,
Megapodius laperousi Geibel, 1875,
Megapodius perousei Finsch, 1875,
Megapodius la perousei Oustalet, 1896,
Megapodius laperouse Hartert, 1898,
Megapodius laperousei Finsch, 1900,
Megapodius lapeyrouse Matschie, 1901,
Megapodius lapeyrousei Reichenow, 1913,
Megapodius laperousei laperousei Kuruda, 1922,
Megapodius laperouse laperouse Mathews, 1927,
Megapodius senex Hartlaub, 1867,
Megapodius laperousii Ogilvie-Grant, 1893,
Megapodius laperousii var. senex Dubois, 1904,
Megapodius laperousi Seale, 1901,
Megapodius laperousei Reichenow, 1913,
Megapodius laperousei senex Kuruda, 1922,
Megapodius laperouse senex Mathews, 1927.
Type locality of M. l. laperouse is Tinian, Mariana Islands; type
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
locality for M. l. senex is Pelew (Palau) Islands. Specimens in U.S.
Museums: M. l. laperouse, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH)
10, series of color slides of captured megapodes on file at the Div.
of Fish and Wildlife on Saipan. M. l. senex, AMNH 16, U.S. National
Museum 9. Other specimens are known in Bordeau; Boulogne; Cambridge,
MA; Delmenhorst; Frankfurt; Paris; St. Omer; Toronto; Vernon, France;
and Honolulu (Bishop Museum) (03,13). There are probably specimens in
Japan as well (03). Drawings and photos of this species are rare.
H. Douglas Pratt has illustrated this species in his forthcoming bird
guide to Pacific birds (28).
Common names for this species include: Marianas megapode (05),
Micronesian megapode (06,03,07), incubator bird (04), Micronesian
incubator bird (08). By far the most common and up to date citations
refer to the species as the Micronesian megapode, including the bird
list from the Assoc. of Systematic Collections (ASC). The Federal
Register common name was changed to Micronesian megapode. It is more
meaningful and geographically descriptive than the previous name,
LaPerouse's megapode, and conforms to the ASC list. "Sasangat" is the
vernacular name for M. laperouse in the Chamorro language of the
Mariana Islands (spelling variation - Sasngt). "Bekai" is the local
name in Palau.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Micronesian megapode (Megapodius laperouse) has been designated
an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the Palau Islands and Mariana Islands, West Pacific Ocean: USA (except
Guam).
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Trust Territory Conservation Office
STATE STATUTE: Trust Territory Endangered Species Act, Title 45,
Fish, Shellfish, and Game, Chapter 5.
NOTE: The Pacific Islands Trust Territories are presently in a
transitional state and are in the process of becoming independent
countries in "free association" with the U.S. The Trust Territories
have opted to split into several different entities: The Commonwealth
of the Northern Marianas, the Republic of Palau, the Federated States
of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands Government. Upon termination
of the Trust it is not known exactly which U.S. laws will apply to the
newly formed governments, if any. Most or presumably all Federal
regulations will still apply to the Commonwealth of the Northern
Marianas.
At this time, former Trust Territory laws, such as the Trust
Territory Endangered Species Act, are slated to be adopted by the
newly formed governments until such time that each of the respective
governments draft and enact their own legislation. Thus, the Trust
Territory Endangered Species Act will still apply to the new island
governments for an indefinite amount of time.
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands does have
provisions in its regulations to list species as endangered, however,
none have been listed to date. In accordance with Public Law 2-51,
Second Legislature of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
(1981), the current regulations of the Division of Fish and Wildlife
prohibit the take of nongame species, including the Micronesian
megapode. The administering agency is the Division of Fish and
Wildlife, Department of Natural Resources.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Marianas megapode (Megapodius laperouse laperouse) and the
Palau megapode (M. l. senex) are both listed as rare in the IUCN Red
Data Book, 1979.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Subsistence harvest of eggs and adults was historically common
among the native islanders and continues to a lesser extent today.
This species is also valued by bird watchers. Occasionally these
birds are killed by indiscriminate shooting.
70/06/02:35 FR 08495/ - Original listing, Endangered
70/12/02:35 FR 18319/18322 - Listing, final rule
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Notice of status review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Micronesian megapode occurs in tropical, broadleaf,
evergreen forests. It forages on the forest floor and roosts in trees
or bushes (03,12,15). It is associated with native forests in Palau
and the Mariana Islands. More specifically megapodes frequent
limestone forests, beach-strand forests, and native forests on
volcanic soils (01,19,12). This species prefers a relatively open
understory forest for feeding and nesting.
On Agiguan and Saipan (Marianas) megapodes inhabit native
limestone forests at the base of, or near, limestone cliffs (01,17,
20). In a study conducted by the Commonwealth Division of Fish and
Wildlife on Saipan, most megapode activity in the study site was found
to occur in limestone forest remnants near the base of a cliff rather
than the more extensive tracts of tangantangan (Leucaena leucocephala)
common in the area (17). An individual located on Tinian in 1985 was
also located in native forest along limestone cliffs (24). Grazing by
feral goats on Agiguan has created an open understory. It is not
known if this habitat alteration negatively or positively influences
the megapode (20,17). Dominant plant species include an overstory of
large trees (Pisonia grandis, Erythrina variegata, Neisosperma
oppositifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Ficus prolixa) and a rich understory
of trees, shrubs and vines (Cynometra ramiflora, Guamia mariannae,
Cordia subcordata, Morinda citrifolia, Carica papaya, Entada
pursaetha, Abrus precatoris). The forest floor is relatively open and
rocky with open areas of leaf litter and bare soil. The ground is
heavily shaded (01,17). Little is known about specific habitat
requirements of the populations on the small islands north of Saipan.
Individuals apparently forage primarily in small patches of native
forest (17) that may include many of the above species plus others.
In the Marianas and Palau megapodes are also associated with
beach-strand forests for feeding and most notably nesting (19,15,01).
In Palau the megapode is found primarily on the small, isolated,
limestone "rock islands" from Koror to Peleliu (12,15). This is
heavily forested, rugged terrain, with practically no soil. Birds
tend to concentate near nest sites, generally near small sandy,
forested beaches. Dominant plants of the narrow beach line strand
forest include Messerschmidia argentea, Scaevola taccada, Ipomoea
pes-caprae, Hernandia sonora, Pemphis acidula, Cocos nucifera, and
Thespesia populnea.
Favorite foraging areas include the sandy vegetated flats behind
the beaches and the base of cliffs along the flats. A more open,
rather than extremely dense understory seems to be preferred.
Megapodes are found less commonly toward the interior of the limestone
islands, where they forage in the scattered pockets of soil among the
jagged rocks and along the base of scarps. On the large volcanic
island of Babeldoab megapodes are rare. Here they are found at widely
scattered locations in deep forest, generally where the understory is
relatively open. A few nest sites located on Babeldoab in 1977-1979
were toward the mouths of larger river valleys (25).
Greatest densities of megapodes in Palau were found to be on the
Habitat Associations - 1 low sandy islet of Ngeriungs at Kayangel Atoll (26). This 37 ha islet
is uninhabited, and the substrate consists of sand interspersed with
loose coralline rubble. The islet supports atoll strand vegetation
with a relatively open understory. There are large colonies of
nesting noddies (mostly black noddies, Anous minutus), which may add
significantly to the fertility of the island. Megapodes inhabit the
strand forest types throughout the year and during all life stages.
There appears to be no variety in habitats related to age of the
birds, although there is still more to learn about habitat
relationships.
Although megapodes are often associated with limestone cliff
areas and rugged rocky volcanic areas (01,19), their use of beaches is
also well known (03). Because Micronesian megapodes excavate nest
mounds to incubate their eggs, they require areas of well drained soil
or sand as nesting substrate. Vegetation and rubble may also be used
in the mounds. Nests are often placed near a dead or dying tree
either standing or fallen (03). In certain areas M. laperouse use
geothermally heated cinder soils for nesting. Under these
circumstances they are associated with thermal features, such as
volcanic steam vents or hot springs.
Micronesian megapodes are not associated with rangelands,
agricultural lands, residential areas, or wetlands. They are birds of
native forests. Relatively large areas of undisturbed native forest
(40 ha or more) are needed for good megapode habitat.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Bottomland
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Downed logs
G Snags: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Micronesian megapodes are omnivorous gallinaceous birds that feed
on seeds, small fruits, plant shoots, insects, snails, millipedes,
worms, crabs, and grit found on and picked from the forest floor (01,
03,12,15). Megapodes forage in a chicken-like manner scratching for
food in leaf litter and other forest detritus as they walk along the
ground. Stomach contents from Palau contained unidentified seeds,
grit, crab parts, ground food, and small wood roaches (Blattidae)
(03). Observations of food taken by megapodes in the Marianas include
earth worms, ripe ficus fruits (Ficus tinctoria), millipedes,
unidentified wood beetles, young plant sprouts, and pieces of sooty
tern (Sterna fuscata) egg shells (01). There are also reports of
megapodes in the Marianas eating a large species of centipede (01).
Megapodes can be kept in captivity on chicken feed, vegetables, and
meat scraps (01). The presence of megapodes is often detected by
scratch marks in soft soil or forest litter. Their large powerful
feet and claws are well adapted for digging and pulling apart rotten
wood.
Additional information on the amount of food consumed, food
preferences or seasonal variability is unknown at this time. It
appears that they feed on a wide variety of fruits, seeds, and
insects. On islands with high densities of hermit crabs (Coenobita
sp.) there is probably strong competition for fruits and vegetables
on the forest floor. This was evident during baiting experiments in
megapode habitat on Saipan when chicken feed was rapidly consumed by
hermit crabs during both the day and night.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
From all indications, the megapode is not truly territorial.
However, individuals are usually found repeatedly in the same area,
and respond excitedly to a tape recording of megapode calls (26,17).
In a study completed on Saipan (Mariana Islands), locations of marked
and unmarked birds over a 12-month period indicate the megapode has a
relatively small home range, probably less than 10 ha of native forest
(01). Birds tended to be seen or heard in the same areas time after
time (17).
During breeding periods male birds will fight other males
aggressively in the presence of females, but no territories are
established; females move through a general area used by both males
and females (01).
Micronesian megapodes are a rather communal species and are found
in relatively high densities under the right conditions. Apparently
nesting areas are not actively defended since more than one pair will
congregate at historical nesting grounds where eggs are laid in a
communal nest mound (03). Birds commonly forage individually, in
pairs, or in small groups (01,03,12,15,25).
PERIODICITY:
Micronesian megapodes are more frequently heard calling than
seen, however, sightings at close range are common. Megapodes are
either heard or observed walking and/or foraging for food throughout
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
all periods of the day. They appear to be more active in early
morning and late afternoon hours (01,17). During hot dry days they
may take refuge in the shade of large rocks or in thick vegetation
where they scrape out a shallow depression to lie in (01). On several
occasions megapodes have been heard calling at night several hours
after sunset. Normally they roost in the late afternoon or evening at
heights of 2-4 m off the ground in shrubs or trees (01). They can be
flushed from the trees in the early morning or spot-lighted and
captured at night while roosting. Based on two years of calling bird
surveys there was no noticeable periodicity in the number of birds
heard, however, they called more frequently during the peak of the
breeding season in Dec.-Jan. (01,17). During the nesting season,
megapodes are most active during the early morning near nest mounds
(15,19).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Micronesian megapodes are non-migratory in the sense of long
distance seasonal movements. They are typically life long residents
of relatively small tropical islands (01,03,12). They do, however,
make periodic trips to and from historical nesting sites (03). Since
breeding and egg laying appears to occur throughout much of the year
the periodicity of movement patterns is unclear (03). In most cases
nesting areas are probably within a short distance of year-long
feeding areas, except when special thermal areas or specific beaches
are used for nesting.
Dispersal mechanisms are not completely understood, though from
the distribution of the megapode on isolated islands, it can be
assumed that the species is an efficient colonizer (03,28).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Micronesian megapode relys upon the existence of native
Pacific island forest communities with relatively open ground cover.
The megapode can be found in a variety of forested situations. In
Palau, they are particularly common in the forest near the small sandy
beaches of isolated limestone islets (03,12,15). Most nest mounds are
placed in these areas. In the Southern Marianas (Agiguan, Tinian,
and Saipan), the megapode occurs in native forest near cliffs (20,17).
Preservation of these habitats is important for the species survival.
Little is known about the specific features of cover and shelter in
the Mariana Islands north of Saipan. Presumably they are similar to
requirements of the species elsewhere.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
M. laperouse incubate their eggs by burying them in a mound of
soil or a mixture of soil and vegetation or by placing eggs in holes
heated by geothermal activity (volcanic steam vents, hot soil near hot
springs, heated volcanic cinder, etc.) especially on certain of the
Mariana Islands north of Saipan (01,03,15,17,27). Nesting sites must
meet unique requirements known only by the birds. Once a successful
nesting area is developed it is used year after year (03,19,01). A
nesting mound or site is used by several female birds and may
represent the breeding population from a large area or even the entire
population of megapodes on a small island. For nesting mounds the
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
texture and composition of substrate is important. Sandy or fine
grained, well drained, forest soils are preferable to rocky or clay
laden soils (19).
A relatively open understory with a substrate of sand or loose
coralline rubble seems to be preferred on Kayangel Atoll (25), an
important nesting site (26). Mounds in Palau are typically located
along the inland margin of sandy beaches in strand forest vegetation
(03,15,19,25). Soils must be aerated well enough for gas exchange at
depth of up to 0.75 m (03). The amount of solar insolation is also
important in determining a site. Mounds are located in relatively
open areas usually at the base of a large dead or dying tree or along
the length of a fallen trunk (25). Mounds may be large up to 8 m in
diameter and 2-3 m high (03,15,19,21). In some cases 2 or 3 mounds
may be located in the same general vicinity. Some birds in the
megapode family actively regulate the temperature of the mound by
adding or removing material.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
There is much to learn about the reproductive behavior/biology
of the megapode. For example, the age of sexual maturity, minimum and
maximum breeding age, receptive period of the female, duration of
pairing, clutch size or exact length of gestation/incubation, all are
unknown.
Based on observations in the Marianas and knowledge of other
Megapodius species the mating system appears to lack any lengthy pair
bonding (01,22,23). However, megapodes often travel in pairs,
presumably as mated adults.
Breeding is promiscuous with several males competing and
displaying for receptive females. There are unique male breeding
calls and displays, but no well defined breeding area (01). The
nesting season is believed to extend year-round in Palau, though there
is evidence that birds lay eggs most actively from April through
November (03).
Incubation is at least 40 days long (03). Several eggs are laid
at intervals by a single female, but the number is unknown. Eggs are
large (70 x 45 mm) and reddish brown when freshly laid (21); as they
incubate they fade into a white color. Large mounds may yield 50-100
eggs (01).
PARENTAL CARE:
There is no parental care. The young chicks are completely
precocial (03,04). Upon hatching under the soil at depths to 0.75 m
the chicks dig their way to the surface. They are completely
feathered with eyes open. When they reach the surface they can fly
and walk. They are capable of scratching for food and feeding
themselves at birth (01). It seems likely that megapode young never
form a bond with their parents. Young birds of several sizes were
observed feeding alone in the Marianas (01). There is no evidense of
adult megapodes actively guarding a nest mound or thermal area. They
retreat when approached by man.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Virtually nothing is known about the population biology of this
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
unique species. There is no data on survival rates, mortality, sex
ratios, longevity or predation rates from either Palau or the
Marianas. Population estimates are incomplete (01,20). Possible
current limiting factors include the availability of adequate nesting
sites, limited amounts of undisturbed native forest, degradation of
habitat by increasing numbers of feral animals, predation by monitor
lizards, illegal hunting/egg collecting, and destructive volcanic
activity (01).
The recovery potential for M. laperouse is extremely good. They
are ideal candidates for reintroductions to formerly inhabited islands
and augmentation transplants to existing populations. Megapodes can
be successfully collected as eggs, transported easily and hatched at
new sites with little difficulty (01,20,21). Since they are
completely precocial young birds could colonize islands without the
need for parental stock. Excellent localities for reintroduction
exist on the islands of Rota and Tinian where the birds are now
extinct (17). The small population on Aguijan and Saipan could be
augmented by release of birds from the northern islands.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
There appears to be no special or coevolutionary relationship
between the Micronesian megapode and any other species of plant or
animal in these island ecosystems.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
The megapode can often be located by its call, which consists of
loud, sharp notes, sometimes given as a duet by a pair (12,28,15).
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Maintaining Later Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Artillery/Explosions
Existing Artillery/Explosions
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Beginning with the first reports of megapodes in Micronesia
several scientists, collectors and historians have remarked that
populations of M. laperouse were small and/or declining and presumed
the cause to be overharvesting of eggs and hunting of adults by
indigenous islanders. To some extent this continues today (03,13,15,
20).
In Palau and the Marianas local people eat both adult megapodes
and their eggs; with a preference for eggs which can be easily located
and removed from large incubation mounds (03). Initial reports from
the Marianas indicated that megapodes were disappearing from several
islands and were rare from the type locality of Tinian (09). In the
late 1800's a visiting scientist felt that megapodes would probably
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
not last much longer on Saipan and Rota owing to incessant hunting by
natives (10). By 1935 megapodes could not be located on Guam and only
a few older residents remembered seeing and hunting the birds (11).
Removal of native vegetation is thought to have negatively
affected megapode populations, particularly on the islands of Rota,
Tinian, Agiguan, and Saipan, which were converted largely to
sugar-cane production during the Japanese Administration. There was
serious destruction of habitat by bombing and shelling during World
War II on the Southern islands of Palau and on Tinian and Saipan in
the Marianas.
During and shortly after WWII several ornithologists visiting the
Marianas did not find megapodes and feared that the fighting and use
of megapodes as food by isolated Japanese troops may have further
depleted the population (03,12). In Palau small populations of 5-30
birds were estimated on four islands following WWII and hunting of
megapodes was still taking place (03). In a review of extinct and
vanishing birds the cause for the probably demise of M. laperouse was
egg predation by man where a subsistence type economy exists (13). On
the basis of these reports M. laperouse was listed as Endangered by
Federal law due to over exploitation by subsistence hunting and egg
gathering (14). Federal listing occurred in 1970 and in 1975 M.
laperouse was listed as Endangered by the U.S. Trust Territory
government in the Pacific (05). Under the Trust Territory law
subsistence hunting by indigenous people was still allowed. In the
late 1970's hunting of megapodes still occurred in Palau despite
protection (15). At present harvesting of megapodes by people is
probably not a major detrimental factor affecting megapodes in the
Marianas (01,16,17).
Additional existing threats to megapodes in the Marianas at
present include: Negative habitat effects of large populations of
feral goats and pigs on several uninhabited islands; localized
predation of megapode eggs by introduced monitor lizards (Varanus
indicus); and occasional indiscriminate killing by hunters (01,17,18),
as well as other introduced predators such as rats, cats, dogs, and
pigs. A recent threat in Palau includes the development of
recreational areas on the small, isolated sandy beaches where the
megapode normally nests (25). The clearing of native forest for
farming, road construction, and development projects destroys megapode
habitat. The extensive stands of introduced tangantangan (Leucaena
leucocephala) trees on some of the Mariana Islands has contributed to
habitat degradation (01,20).
Future Perceived Threats:
Most of the factors that have led to the decline of the megapode
will continue to affect the species in the future. The illegal
harvest of eggs does not now appear to be a major problem in the
Marianas, though eggs are still taken in Palau. Continued poaching
will likely remain a threat, as will introduced predators and feral
ungulates. Military training activities on Tinian may harm the
megapode in the future. The eventual development of cliff base and
shoreline property will have a negative effect on megapode habitat.
Already on Saipan property trades and development in the Marpi area
threaten the well being of the small reintroduced megapode population
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
found there. The development of tourist facilities in the uninhabited
northern islands may also have a negative effect on megapodes if
planned thoughtlessly. The rapid demand for land and development in
the Marianas will eventually displace many species of wildlife,
including the Micronesian megapode. Resort development, especially in
Palau, will also remain a threat.
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
A recovery plan for the Micronesian megapode has not been
initiated, and a target date for initiation has not been established.
Planning for the recovery of the Micronesian megapode is hampered
by our poor understanding of factors limiting its population.
However, two sources of mortality are immediately evident, the
plundering of nest sites by pigs, monitor lizards, and other predators
and the indiscriminate shooting and taking of eggs by local hunters.
Attributes of the megapode in favor of its survival include (1) the
bird's willingness to exploit an array of habitats and (2) the ability
of megapodes (possibly both chicks and adults) to cross between
islands.
Though no recovery plan has been written at this point, recovery
for existing populations will involve:
(1) More research on megapode breeding biology, particularly on
distribution of nest sites.
(2) Reducing nest predation by eliminating feral (exotic) pigs and
monitor lizards from megapode habitat, though this action is not
feasible at present.
(3) Protection of the megapode from hunting and harvesting of eggs by
humans.
(4) The preservation of nesting sites and the restricting of
development at such sites (by proper land use zoning).
(5) The preservation of native forest habitat.
(6) Increasing public awareness of the megapode's Endangered status.
(7) Reintroduction of megapodes to appropriate habitat.
Habitat is presently being lost to agricultural, residential,
recreational, and business development, as well as feral ungulates.
Regrowth of native forests should be encouraged by removal of exotic
vegetation and subsequent planting of native tree species. Because
the young megapode requires no parental care, and eggs could be easily
transported among islands, translocating eggs to islands where the
species is now extinct would be a feasible way to re-establish
populations in the Marianas. Adult birds may also be transplanted to
augment existing populations.
Recovery actions underway include surveys of megapodes on all
islands of the Marianas and a study of megapode dispersion and
seasonality of calling.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Lemke, T.O. [In press] Status and natural history of the
Micronesian megapode in the Mariana Islands. Condor.
02 Lemke, T.O. 1984. Notes on the capture and banding of Micronesian
megapodes. CNMI Div. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan. 5 pp.
03 Baker, R.H. 1951. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin,
evolution and distribution. Univ. Kansas, Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist.
3:1-359.
04 Mayr, E. 1945. Birds of the southwest Pacific. MacMillian Co.,
NY. 316 pp.
05 Internation Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources. 1977. The Red Data Book.
06 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett. 1979. America's
unknown avifauna: The birds of the Mariana Islands. Amer. Birds
33:227-235.
07 Pratt, H.D. and P.L. Bruner. 1978. Micronesian megapode
rediscovered on Saipan. 'Elapaio 39:57-59.
08 Neuner, A.M. and D.E. Seibel. [n.d.] Checklist of birds of the
United States and the U.S. Territories. Assoc. of Systematic
Collections.
09 Quoy, J.R. and P.J. Gaimard. 1824-1826. Voyage autour du monde.
Entepres par ordre du Roi. Execute sur les corvettes de S.M.
l'Uranie et la Physicienne, pendant les annees 1817, 1818, 1819, et
1820. Par M. Louis de Freycinet, Capitaine de Vasseau. Paris,
Zoologie. 712 pp.
10 Oustalet, M.E. 1895. The mammals and birds of the Mariana
Islands. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, Ser. 3, 7:141-228.
(In French).
11 Linsley, L.N. 1935. Curious things about Guam: The mountain
chicken. Guam Recorder 12:249-250.
12 Marshall, J.T., Jr. 1949. The endemic avifauna of Saipan, Tinian,
Guam, and Palau. Condor 51:200-221.
13 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1967. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
world. Dover Publ., Inc., New York. 520 pp.
14 U.S. Government. 1970. Federal Register. 35:8495.
15 Pratt, H.D., J. Engbring, P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett. 1980.
Notes on the taxonomy, natural history and status of the resident
birds of Palau. Condor 82:117-131.
16 Lemke, T.O. 1984. Micronesian megapode surveys and inventories.
Pittman-Robertson Job Progress Rept., CNMI Div. of Fish and
Wildlife, Saipan. 6 pp.
17 Lemke, T.O. 1984. Micronesian megapode surveys and
investigations. Pittman-Robertson Job Progress Reports FY 1984.
Unpublished report available at: CNMI Div. of Fish and Wildlife,
Saipan. Pp. 106-112.
18 Pratt, T.K. and T.O. Lemke. 1984. Wildlife field trip report from
the Townsend Cromwell RAIOMA cruise, 18 February - 5 March, 1984.
CNMI Div. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan. 51 pp.
19 Engbring, John. August 1984. Personal communication (letter).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu,
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
HI 96850.
20 Engbring, J., F.L. Ramsey and V.J. Wildman. [In press]
Micronesian forest bird survey 1982: Saipan, Tinian, Agiguan, and
Rota. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological
Service.
21 Yamashina, Y. 1932. On a collection of birds' eggs from
Micronesia. Tori 7:393-413.
22 Clark, G.A., Jr. 1964. Life histories and evolution of megapodes.
Living Bird 3:146-168.
23 Roper, D.S. 1981. Egg incubation and laying behavior of the
incubator bird Megapodius freycinet on Savo. Ibis 125:384-386.
24 Amerson, B. 1985. Personal communication. 4020 Brookhaven #1520,
Dallas, TX 75244.
25 Engbring, J. 1977-1985. Field notes. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, P.O. Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850.
26 Engbring, J. 1979. Ngcheangel (Kayangel) Atoll bird survey.
Unpublished report available at: Trust Territory Conservation
Office.
27 Falanruw, M.V.C. 1975. Distribution of the Micronesian megapode
Megapodius laperouse in the Northern Mariana Islands. Micronesica
11:149-150.
28 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett. [In press] A field
guide to the birds of Hawaii and the tropical Pacific. Princeton
University Press, Princeton.
29 Hartlaub, G. 1868. On a collection of birds from some less-known
localities in the Western Pacific. Proc. Zool. Soc. London for
1867:828-832, pl. 38.
30 Kuroda, N. 1922. A list of the birds of Micronesia Group,
exclusive of Magalhaes, Gilbert and Ellice islands. IN: Momiyama,
Birds of Micronesia, Part 1:31-78.
31 Ogilvie-Grant, W.R. 1893. Catalogue of the game birds in the
collection of the British Museum. 22:xvi + 585, 8 plates.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Pratt, H.D., J. Engbring, P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett. 1980.
Notes on the taxonomy, natural history and status of the resident
birds of Palau. Condor 82:117-131.
02 Engbring, John. August 1984. Personal communication (letter).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu,
HI 96850.
03 Lemke, Thomas O. 1985. Personal observation and communication.
P.O. Box 595, Thompson Falls, MT 59873.
04 Lemke, T.O. 1984. Recent observations on the avifauna of the
Northern Mariana Islands north of Saipan. CNMI Div. of Fish and
Wildlife, Saipan. 40 pp.
05 Pratt, T.K. and T.O. Lemke. 1984. Wildlife field trip report from
the Townsend Cromwell RAIOMA cruise, 18 February - 5 March, 1984.
Unpublished report on file at: CNMI Div. of Fish and Wildlife,
Saipan. 51 pp.
06 Engbring, J., F.L. Ramsey and V.J. Wildman. [In press]
Micronesian forest bird survey 1982: Saipan, Tinian, Agiguan, and
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species MEGAPODE, MICRONESIAN
Species Id ESIS101012
Date 14 MAR 96
Rota. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological
Service.
07 Pratt, H.D. and P.L. Bruner. 1978. Micronesian megapode
rediscovered on Saipan. 'Elapaio 39:57-59.
08 Falanruw, M.V.C. 1975. Distribution of the Micronesian megapode
Megapodius laperouse in the Northern Mariana Islands. Micronesica
11:149-150.
09 Wiles, Gary J. June 1985. Personal communication (letter). Div.
of Aquatic & Wildlife Resources, P.O. Box 23367, G.M.F., Guam,
96921.
10 Pratt, Thane K. March 1985. Personal communication. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu, HI 96850.
11 Lemke, T.O. and T.K. Pratt. 1983. Agiguan field trip report,
11-14 July 1983. Unpublished report on file at: CNMI Div. of Fish
and Wildlife, Saipan. 7 pp.
12 Lemke, T.O. and T.K. Pratt. 1984. Goat Island (Aguijan) field
trip, 18-22 June, 1984. Unpublished report on file at: CNMI Div.
of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan. 15 pp.
13 Lemke, T.O. and T.K. Pratt. 1985. Aguijan (Goat Island) field
trip, January 30 - February 3, 1985. Unpublished report on file
at: CNMI Div. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan. 8 pp.
14 Lemke, T.O. 1984. Unpublished report. Micronesian megapode
surveys and investigations. Pittman-Robertson Job Progress Reports
FY 1984. Unpublished report on file at: CNMI Div. of Fish and
Wildlife, Saipan. Pp. 106-112.
15 Lemke, T.O. 1985. Micronesian megapode surveys and inventories.
Pittman-Robertson Job Progress Rept. Unpublished report on file
at: CNMI Div. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan. 7 pp.
16 Mayr, E. 1945. Birds of the southwest Pacific. MacMillian Co.,
NY. 316 pp.
17 Marshall, J.T., Jr. 1949. The endemic avifauna of Saipan, Tinian,
Guam, and Palau. Condor 51:200-221.
18 Baker, R.H. 1951. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin,
evolution and distribution. Univ. Kansas, Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist.
3:1-359.
19 Engbring, J. and H.D. Pratt. Endangered birds in Micronesia:
their history, status, and future prospects. (Ms. submitted to
Bird Conservation in 1984). 53 pp.
20 Linsley, L.N. 1935. Curious things about Guam: The mountain
chicken. Guam Recorder 12:249-250.
21 Engbring, J. and F.L. Ramsey. 1983. Distribution and abundance of
the forest birds of Guam: Results of a 1981 survey (draft).
Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Honolulu, HI.
22 Jenkins, J.M. 1983. The native forest birds of Guam. Amer.
Ornith. Union, Ornith. Monogr. No. 31.
23 Amerson, B. 1985. Personal communication. 4020 Brookhaven #1520,
Dallas, TX 75244.
24 Engbring, J. 1977-1985. Field notes. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, P.O. Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850.
25 Owen, R.P. 1977. A checklist of the birds of Micronesia.
Micronesica 13:65-81.
References - 3