(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN; GALLINULE, COMMON, HAWAIIAN;GALLINULE, HAWAIIAN;GALLINULE, COMMON; MOORHEN, COMMON;ALAE ULA; 'ALAE 'ULA; ALAE-HUAPI; 'ALAE-HUAPI;KOKI; MUD-HEN;MOORHEN;HEN and MOOR
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - GRUIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - RALLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - GALLINULA,
SPECIES AND SSP - CHLOROPUS, SANDVICENSIS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - GALLINULA CHLOROPUS SANDVICENSIS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaiian Common Moorhen
Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis Streets, 1877
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Gruiformes FAMILY: Rallidae
Hawaiian common moorhen adults (sexes alike) are bluish-black or
slate-gray birds; darker on the head and neck; lighter on the back,
breast and sides. About 13 inches long, they have white under-tail
coverts and flanks. The bill is relatively short, bright red, tipped
with light green or yellow. The red of the bill extends up over the
forehead in a frontal shield. The feet (tarsi and toes) are green or
greenish-yellow with a narrow red band around the tibia and are
without lobes or webs. Juvenile birds are dusky olive-brown to
greyish-brown, with a pale yellow or brown bill. Chicks are black
with a red bill and frontal shield, usually exhibiting white-tipped
curly down around the throat and crowns only sparsely covered with
black down. Eggs are ovoid, creamy, spotted with brown, grey and
black, approximately 1.75 to 1.25 inches (01,02,03,04,05).
The Hawaiian common moorhen was first described in 1877 by
Streets and named Gallinula sandvicensis, giving the synonym as
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
Gallinula chloropus (05). In 1944 Monroe's "Birds of Hawaii" (04)
used the current name, Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis, and there is
presently general agreement that the Hawaiian form is a subspecies of
the North American common gallinule, Gallinula chloropus chloropus.
At the species level, Linnaeus first named it Fulica chloropus in 1758
(06,07,08).
Several common names are used for the Hawaiian common moorhen,
these include Hawaiian common gallinule, Hawaiian gallinule, common
moorhen, common gallinule, alae ula (or 'alae 'ula), alae-huapi (or
'alae-huapi), koki, mud-hen, and moor hen (or moorhen).
The earliest record of a specimen was in 1839. On February 27,
1899, George E. Munro collected a female common moorhen on the Island
of Kaua'i and in 1935 donated it to the Aukland, New Zealand museum.
The type specimen (and others) are in the National Museum of Natural
History in Washington, D.C. Other specimens for study can be found in
the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, the Bernice Pauahi Bishop
Museum in Honolulu, and Brigham Young University, Hawai'i Campus in
La'ie, O'ahu (05,07,09). Photographs, descriptions, and drawings are
available at the State of Hawai'i Division of Forestry and Wildlife,
Honolulu, HI (05).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawaiian common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis)
has been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16
U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status
wherever found including the State of Hawaii.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
under the species name Gallinula chloropus (16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.;
50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural
Resources, Division of Forestry and
Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as rare by
IUCN, 1979.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
This is one of the many endemic birds of Hawai'i sought by bird
watchers. This species was eaten by older generations of Hawaiians,
although palatability was considered poor. Hunting prior to 1939 was
considered a major limiting factor.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Five year review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Residential
Transportation, communications, and Util
Cropland and Pasture
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Nonforested Wetland
Transitional Areas
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, lower perennial AB5
Riverine, lower perennial AB4
Lacustrine, littoral FL6
Lacustrine, littoral EM
Lacustrine, littoral AB5
Lacustrine, littoral AB4
Palustrine EM6
Palustrine EM5
Palustrine AB5
Palustrine AB4
Estuarine, intertidal AB
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
In lowland areas of present known occurrence on the Islands of
O'ahu and Kaua'i and present possible occurrence on Moloka'i, Hawaiian
common moorhen habitat consists of freshwater to slightly brackish
aquatic environments. Feeding, nesting, and cover sites are usually
in close proximity. Specific habitat types include natural ponds,
marshes, streams, springs or seeps, lagoons, and man-made forms such
as grazed (wet) meadows, taro (Colocasia esculenta) patches, lotus
(Nelumbo nutifera) farms, aquaculture (shrimp) ponds, reservoirs,
mud-settling basins, sewage ponds, and drainage ditches (02,03,05,11,
13). Nests have been found along ditch margins, in clumps of
vegetation in wet pastures, in lotus fields, along the margins of
freshwater and brackish ponds, in unchlorinated sewage ponds, and in
taro fields (02,03,05,11). Specific feeding, loafing, and escape
habitats have not been detailed, but the common moorhen favors densely
vegetated areas (03,05,11).
On O'ahu, common moorhen density is greatest in the James
Campbell National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) ponds, in private aquaculture
impoundments at Kahuku, and in commercial lotus fields at Hale'iwa.
On Kaua'i, the Hanalei NWR taro fields support the largest
concentration of common moorhens. Ditches, reservoirs, and
sugar-settling basins on eastern Kaua'i near Lihu'e and Kapa'a also
support significant numbers (05,07,13,14,15,16,17).
Vegetative associations have only been described in detail in one
study of two habitats on O'ahu. Bullrush (Scirpus paludosus),
Paspalum vaginatum, and a succulent prostrate plant, Bacopa monnieria
dominated a ponded meadow. California grass (Brachiaria mutica),
Habitat Associations - 1 water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and coontail (Ceratophyllum sp.)
were the most common plants in the adjacent drainage canal at Hamakua
Drive. The second area, the Hale'iwa lotus fields, was characterized
by the dominant crop (Nelumbo nucifera) with weedy intrusions of water
fern (Azolla filiculoides), honohono grass (Commelina diffusa), kamole
(Ludwigia octivalvis), and Cyperus polystachus. In these same areas,
a few environmental descriptions are given. At Hamakua Drive, the
soil was described as red, non-stony, deep, fine-textured with
expanding clay properties and poorly drained. At Hale'iwa, the lotus
fields featured well-drained, non-stony, deep red desert soils, low
humic latasols, and alluvial soils. Annual rainfall in the
meadow/ditch habitat ranged from 64 to 102 cm per year; in the lotus
field sites, 51 to 102 cm per year. At the Hamakua Drive site, water
depth varied between 0 and 25 cm in the meadow pond and 26-100 cm in
the ditch. Preferred nesting habitat was generally dense vegetation
adjacent to open water (11). Aside from the foregoing, little is
known of the environmental requirements of the Hawaiian common moorhen
(05).
Urbanized lowlands in Honolulu provide some habitats as well as
urbanized areas on Kaua'i.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Algae
General Floating aquat. plant
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Vascular Plants-Submerged Nonwoody
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
General Molluscs
General Amphibia
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
G Human Association: Farm ponds
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Hawaiian common moorhens are omnivorous, feeding
opportunistically on a variety of plants (filamentous algae, seeds,
fruits, grasses, herbs, aquatic crops) and animals (aquatic insects,
mollusks, and small amphibians) (02,03,05,11,18,19,20,21). Floating,
emergent or submerged plants may be consumed. Common moorhen food
sampled on Kaua'i and O'ahu listed thiarid snails (Melania sp.),
"insects", and a small frog (Rana sp.) as animal components and koa
haole (Leucaena leucocephala), guava fruit (Psidium guajava), lotus
root, water fern, and yellow foxtail seeds (Setaria sp.) as plant
components in the few stomach contents examined (17,18,19,20). The
tops and young shoots of taro are also consumed (03). In one limited
study, coontail, bacopa, and bullrush were noted as favored plants for
gleaning insects and mollusks (11). Nothing is known about seasonal
variability, variation in food consumption by age class, or food
preferences. In view of Hawai'i's year-round growing season and
assuming habitat availability, food supply is probably not a threat to
the species' survival (05).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The Hawaiian common moorhen is considered more sedentary than
other island waterbirds, and probably has a limited home range, given
an abundance of food, water, and cover (03,05,07,11). However, they
have been known to travel great distances from water (02). Home range
and territoriality have not been examined, except for a limited study
of nesting and feeding habits on O'ahu. Territories at Hamakua Drive
were maintained year-round, but at Hale'iwa they were defended only
during the active nesting period in one field. At Hamakua, distances
between nests averaged 182 m (range 87-377 m) and at Haleiwa, 63.5 m
(range 30-172 m). Nesting territories are usually 8 m or greater in
diameter, are actively defended, and agonistic behavor includes
charging, mutual retreat, challenging, and active fighting. One
observation noted active defense of newly hatched young in a 9 - 14 m
radius. Territoriality apparently breaks up during non-breeding
periods when flocking occurs (02,11,22,23).
PERIODICITY:
Periodicity has not been studied per se, but common moorhen
activity patterns are apparently a function of food and cover
availability, water levels, and agricultural practices (05). Although
the breeding season may be considered year-round, one study showed
that the availability of lush dense vegetation for "ideal" nesting
conditions created nesting peaks in February and November (Hamakua
Drive) and April (Hale'iwa) (11). As with most waterbirds in Hawai'i,
the common moorhen is diurnal in habit (05).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Hawaiian common moorhen is non-migratory by nature and is not
known to travel great distances from breeding or feeding sites. A few
banded common moorhens have been recovered, but always close to the
location of the initial capture and marking (01,05).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Except as a description of plants found in its habitat upon which
it feeds or in which it nests, common moorhen cover and shelter
requirements have not been described. Dense vegetation associated
with water appears to be essential (03,11). An overall ratio of 50:50
between vegetation and open water is thought to be optimum (24 in 02).
Specific habitat types used by the species include natural ponds,
marshes, streams, lagoons, and man-made forms such as grazed (wet)
meadows, taro (Colocasia esculenta) patches, lotus farms, aquaculture
(shrimp) ponds, reservoirs, mud-settling basins, sewage ponds, and
drainage ditches (02,03,05,11,13).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Courtship behavior has been noted only in relatively open lotus
fields (11). Nesting sites vary and have been noted in or near bulky,
tall vegetation; on open solid ground on margins of ponds, streams,
and ditches; along edges of sewage treatment ponds; and in wet
meadows. In terms of location and material, vegetation associated with
nests includes one species of bullrush (water lettuce), California
grass, paspalum, bacopa, cattail (Typha domingensis), taro, and lotus.
Nests have been noted on floating mats well above the water level
within clumps of vegetation or on top of vegetation. Emergent
vegetation is folded over into a platform nest (03). Where emergent
vegetation is too sparse, nests may be placed on the ground (02).
Nesting is more fequent where there is a good "edge effect" along
narrow interconnecting water ways with tall cover nearby (02,03,11).
In one study (20), water depth in the vicinity of nests varied from
0 - 25 cm (6 nests) to 26 - 50 cm (1 nest) to 51 - 75 cm (1 nest) to
76 - 100 cm (3 nests). Normally, standing water in nest areas is less
than 60 cm deep (02). Other reproductive site parameters have not
been detailed. However, it seems that particular plant species are
not as important as stem density and height (02).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Reproduction has not been studied extensively for the Hawaiian
subspecies, although it can be assumed that breeding parameters are
similar to the North American common gallinule (03,05,11). The
breeding season of the Hawaiian common moorhen is year-round, but
peaks have been noted as February, November and April at one location
(11) and February through October in another (03). Nesting appears to
be a function of suitable habitat (vegetation, water levels, edaphic
factors). Courtship behavior has been specifically recorded in
January, February, May, August, September and October and consists of
bowing, nibbling, chasing, and arching (11). The incubaton period is
unknown, but incubation begins with the laying of the first egg (02).
In one brief study (11) it was noted that males spent twice as much
time gathering nest material and half as much time incubating eggs as
the female. Large clutches [3-13 eggs (average 5.6, n=64)] are laid,
and re-nesting and second clutches are known to occur (02,03,11,13,18,
20,25). The incubation period is about 22 days (25). Brood sizes
vary considerably but averaged in the ranged from 2.8 to 4.5 chicks
successfully reared in the few observations made. Fledgling success
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
was 27% (04,11).
PARENTAL CARE:
Both parents share in nest building and incubation; the male
more so in the former and the female more so in the latter. Both
sexes defend nesting territory. Chicks are precocial and swim or run
away from the nest soon after hatching, but remain with the parents
for several weeks (01,03). Parental care has been poorly
studied - observations of parent-young relationships are difficult due
to their habits of harboring in dense vegetation (05,11).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
No systematic studies of common moorhen population dynamics have
been made, although censuses are made annually. On counts made
between 1977 and 1982, totals averaged 388 (range 140-750), statewide.
These were not considered representative of actual populations due to
inadequate census methods and the species' noted secretive habits (07,
13,14,15,16,17,23). As an example, on January 15, 1979, one hundred
eighteen (118) common moorhens were counted in the open Hale'iwa lotus
fields on O'ahu, which was 75% of the total censused for O'ahu and 50
pct. of the statewide total for that year (13). Survival, mortality,
recruitment, and turnover rates are unknown, as are sex ratios or
longevity. Current limiting factors include habitat loss and
alteration, predation, and human disturbance (01,02,03,05,11). The
management goal is to have a stable population of 2,000 common
moorhens distributed on existing habitats (02).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The Hawaiian common moorhen has not been linked with any other
species upon which it depends for survival (other than man). Direct
predation by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), mongoose (Herpestes
auropunctatus), feral cats (Felis catus) has been noted, and taking of
young by bass (Servanidae) and black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax
nycticorax hoactli) is suspected (01,03,05).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Prescribed/controlled burning of habitat
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Water Right Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Water Level Stabilization
Existing Water Level Stabilization
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The older generations of Hawaiians apparently used the 'alae 'ula
(Hawaiian common moorhen) for food, eventhough it was of poor
palatability. The impact of consumption by humans on the species is
unknown (10). With the passing of rice cultivation in 1963 and the
drastic reduction of taro production in modern times, loss of man-made
habitat undoubtedly contributed to the decline of this species. As
early as the 1850's significant losses of habitat began to occur with
the replacement of some taro fields by other agricultural activities
(e.g., sugar cane) and by development. Today only about 500 acres
remain in taro or other wetland agriculture (02,11). Hunting prior to
1939 was a major limiting factor. To a lesser extent, illegal
shooting (particularly on Kaua'i) has an impact on populations (01,02,
12) as has harassment from the general public (05). By far, past and
present population declines have been due to habitat alteration or
destruction. Former freshwater wetlands have been converted to
resorts, subdivisions, golf courses, agricultural and industrial
areas. These developments have adversely effected moorhen habitat by
modifying channels and shorelines, increasing siltation, filling
wetlands, adversely stabilizing water levels in some areas, and
causing water level fluctuations, flooding and water diversions in
other areas. Exotic vegetation such as mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
and California grass (Brachiaria mutica) has encroached and smothered
many of the remaining natural habitats (01,02,07,11). Predation by
three species of rats, cats, dogs, and mongooses is a continuous
limiting factor on productivity (02,03,11). The adverse effects of
pollution, biocides, diseases, parasites and human pollution are
suspect but unstudied (02). In the 1980's, the expansion of
aquaculture (prawns, fish, etc.), particularly on O'ahu and
maintenance of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and a few taro farms has
afforded stable habitat for common moorhen. However, factors such as
habitat loss or alteration, predation, and to some extent illegal
shooting and distubance are still impacting the species (02,05).
Future threats may include human pressure to convert or modify
the remaining lowland freshwater habitats, predation (perhaps by newly
escaped or released carnivores), disease, pollution, and poisoning.
Without the acquisition of additional secure habitats, predator
control, water-level management, reintroductions, and contingency
plans for outbreaks of diseases, poisoning, or pollutants, moorhen
populations may decline (02,05).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Hawaiian Waterbirds Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 99 pp.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
The Hawaiian common moorhen has declined due to loss or
degradation of habitat and to nest predation by introduced mammals.
The revised Hawaiian Waterbirds Recovery Plan states as its prime
objective to maintain a minimum population of 2000 moorhens with a
stable distribution of habitats as outlined in the original 1978
recovery plan. Progressive down-listing and delisting can be made
once specified areas of habitat are secured and the population rises
to 2000 or more birds for six consecutive years.
Recommended recovery actions include:
1) Securing specified habitats on five islands.
2) Development of cooperative agreements among the State and Federal
governments and private landowners to protect habitats from
adverse development and to provide for management of wetland
habitat on private lands and on government lands not held by
wildlife agencies. Obtaining water rights may be necessary on
some lands.
3) Use regulatory authority and provide technical assistance to
landowners and agencies to protect and enhance wetlands.
4) Use existing regulatory authorities to uphold land use
regulations. Additional regulations would be helpful.
5) Identify additional habitat.
6) Manage wetlands to maximize productivity by controlling water
levels and salinity; managing for desirable plants and
controlling or removing undesirable vegetation (some native
species and often noxious exotics, though some exotics are
beneficial to the moorhen) through prescribed burning and other
means; limiting human access; managing for habitat diversity
(shallow and deep water, dense emergent vegetation, mudflats
etc.); controlling predators (introduced mammals, feral cats and
dogs, and native herons and egrets) by creating moats surrounding
nesting habitats, fencing, as well as other lethal and non-lethal
control measures; providing preventative disease control measures
and contingency plans; minimizing contamination of habitats by
toxic substances; and rehabilitating and releasing injured or
displaced individuals.
7) Identify sites for restoration or creation of waterbird habitats.
8) Conduct management related research.
9) Continue population monitoring and develop a more efficient means
of censusing since this species is difficult to census.
10) Generate public awareness and support for waterbird recovery
programs through education and the dissemination of information.
11) Investigate the need for propagation and reintroduction of
captive birds or translocation of wild adults. Although captive
propagation is not recommended now, this could be a useful tool
in the future.
Recovery actions accomplished and in progress are almost too
numerous to list. Foremost are the creation of (1) State sanctuaries
at Kanaha and Kealia Ponds and at Paiko Lagoon and (2) National
Wildlife Refuges, including Hanalei, Hule'ia, Kakahai'a, Pearl Harbor,
and James Campbell NWRs. The USFWS is negotiating the acquisition of
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
Kealia Pond. The moorhen may eventually spread on its own to habitat
on Maui, or could be introduced there. Management of these refuges is
controversial, particularly as to how water levels and salinity should
be regulated to maximize productivity of endemic waterbirds. A
research project funded by the USFWS and conducted by the University
of Missouri is currently investigating problems of habitat improvement
and predator control for Hawaiian waterbirds. Another USFWS research
project is the study of the biology and control of the small Indian
mongoose. Several of the NWRs have been fenced and are subject to
predator control. Development projects reviewed by the Environmental
Services Office of the USFWS have often been required to take into
account the protection or improvement of waterbird habitat; mitigation
has led to the creation of new habitat, such as Ho'omaluhia Park and
Punaho'olapa wetlands.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu. 270 pp.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland, OR.
99 pp.
03 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. An ornithological survey of Hawaiian
wetlands. Vol. 1. U.S. Army, Engineer District. Honolulu, HI.
04 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
189 pp.
05 Walker, R.L. 1985. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street,
Kaneohe, HI 96744.
06 Streets, T.H. 1877. Description of a new moorhen from the
Hawaiian Islands. Ibis 2:25-27.
07 Banko, W.E. 1985. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. Part I.
Population histories - Species accounts: Freshwater birds.
CPSU/UH Avian History Report 10 (Aeo: 1-234 p.). Located at:
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Dept. of Botany, Honolulu, HI.
08 American Ornithologist' Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
09 Walkley, R. 1976. Drepanidid specimens in Australian museums.
'Elepaio 36(12):147.
10 Malo, D. 1898. Hawaiian antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). Bishop
Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.
11 Nagata, S.E. 1983. Status of the Hawaiian gallinule on lotus
farms and a marsh on Oahu, Hawaii. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State
University. 87 pp.
12 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu.
13 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1980. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. July 1, 1978 - January 31, 1980. Job progress report,
W-18-R-4, Job R-III-A. 56 pp.
14 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1981. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1980 - January 31, 1981. Job progress report,
W-18-R-5, Job R-III-A.
15 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1982. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1981 - January 31, 1982. Job progress report,
W-18-R-6, Job R-III-A.
16 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1983. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1982 - January 31, 1983. Job progress report,
W-18-R-7, Job R-III-A. 35 pp.
17 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1984. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1983 - January 31, 1984. Job progress report,
W-18-R-7, Job R-III-A. 33 pp.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
18 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1978. Descriptions of
waterbird habitats as related to food availability and feeding
behavior of endangered waterbird species on the islands of Kauai
and Oahu. July 1, 1976 - June 30, 1978. Job progress report,
W-18-R-2, Job R-III-D. 11 pp.
19 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1978. Descriptions of
waterbird habitats as related to food availability and feeding
behavior of endangered waterbird species on the islands of Kauai
and Oahu. July 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978. Job progress report,
W-18-R-3, Job R-III-D. 33 pp.
20 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1978. Descriptions of
waterbird habitats as related to food availability and feeding
behavior of endangered waterbird species on the islands of Kauai
and Oahu. September 1, 1978 - August 31, 1979. Job progress
report, W-18-R-4, Job R-III-D. 33 pp.
21 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1949. A reconnaissance of the
game birds in Hawaii. Hawaii Board of Commissioners of
Agriculture and Forestry, Honolulu, HI.
22 Shallenberger, R.J. 1974. Field notes. 'Elepaio 35(2):19-20.
23 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1985. Statewide
waterbird marking, movement, and disease study. July 1, 1983 to
June 30, 1984. Job progress report, W-18-R-9, Job R-III-F. 5 pp.
24 Weller, M.W., and L.H. Fredrickson. 1973. Avian ecology of a
managed glacial marsh. Living Birds 12:269-291.
25 Byrd, G.V. and C.F. Zeillemaker. 1981. Ecology of nesting
Hawaiian common gallinules at Hanalei, Hawaii. Western Birds
12(3):105-116.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Armstrong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. The University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
99 pp.
03 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. An ornithological survey of Hawaiian
wetlands. Vol. 1. U.S. Army, Engineer District. Honolulu, HI.
04 Banko, W.E. 1985. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. Part I.
Population histories - Species accounts: Freshwater birds.
CPSU/UH Avian History Report 10 (Aeo: 1-234 p.). Located at:
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Dept. of Botany, Honolulu, HI.
05 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu. 270 pp.
06 Walker, R.L. 1985. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street,
Kaneohe, HI 96744.
07 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1980. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. July 1, 1978 - January 31, 1980. Job progress report,
W-18-R-4, Job R-III-A. 56 pp.
08 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1981. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1980 - January 31, 1981. Job progress report,
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species MOORHEN, COMMON, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101014
Date 14 MAR 96
W-18-R-5, Job R-III-A.
09 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1982. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1981 - January 31, 1982. Job progress report,
W-18-R-6, Job R-III-A.
10 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1983. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1982 - January 31, 1983. Job progress report,
W-18-R-7, Job R-III-A. 35 pp.
11 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1984. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. February 1, 1983 - January 31, 1984. Job progress report,
W-18-R-7, Job R-III-A. 33 pp.
12 Berger, A.J. March 12, 1985. Personal communication.
13 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1949. A reconnaissance of the
game birds in Hawaii. Hawaii Board of Commissioners of
Agriculture and Forestry, Honolulu, HI.
14 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
189 pp.
15 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu.
16 Pekelo, N., Jr. 1964. Natures notes from Molokai. 'Elepaio
24(10):46-48.
17 Pekelo, N., Jr. 1970. Field notes from Molokai. 'Elepaio
18(7):48.
18 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press.
Washington, D.C.
References - 3