(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - DUCK, HAWAIIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - DUCK and HAWAIIAN; KOLOA; KOLOA MAOLI;KOLOA-MAOLI;KOLOA PIWAI
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - ANSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ANATIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - ANAS,
SPECIES AND SSP - WYVILLIANA,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - ANAS WYVILLIANA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaiian Duck
Anas wyvilliana Sclater, 1878
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Anseriformes FAMILY: Anatidae
The Hawaiian duck (or koloa) is a small duck, mottled in shades
of brown and buff, with a greenish to purple speculum (01). Males
are slightly larger and darker than females, exhibiting a chestnut
breast patch, more olivaceous bill color, and usually brighter
(orange) feet. Males may have a tinge of blue-green coloration on the
top of the head (01,02,03,04). Females are streaked with brown and
have yellowish or greyish feet. The bill of the hen is yellow-orange
with dark spots at the base of the upper mandible or uniformly grey
(01,03). Males are 48.3-50.8 cm (19-20 in) in length; females 40.6-
43.2 cm (16-17 in). In a limited sample of captive koloa, weights
ranged from 397-737.1 gm (14-26.5 oz) with drakes averaging 96.4 gm
(3.4 oz) heavier than hens. Ducklings are chocolate brown and light
buff-yellow, with a brown stripe from the base of the upper bill
through the eye to the back of the head, and a brown spot near the
posterior of the cheek (01). Eggs are usually white, but have
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
variations of light tan or buff and average 5.4-4.8 cm (2.12 x 1.29
in) in diameter (01,05).
A specimen assigned to Anas boschas, but later identified as A.
wyvilliana, was described in 1852 and 1854. Other specimens were
labelled Anas superciliosa, A. sandwichensis in 1856, A. sandwichensis
var. (partim) in 1859, and A. sandwichensis (non Gmelin) in 1869,
suggesting a relationship with the New Zealand grey duck (06). The
present designation of Anas wyvilliana came as a result of a
collection made during the voyage of the H.M.S. Challenger to Hawai'i
in 1875 and was named by P.D. Sclater (03,06,07). First descriptions
of the Hawaiian duck suggested a close relationship with the mallard,
Anas platyrynchos, (given the subspecific designation A. p.
wyvilliana) (26) or other species (i.e., A. superciliosa). Some
authors (05) used the designation A. w. wyvilliana. The most recent
A.O.U. checklist, however, gives it a full species designation, Anas
wyvilliana (04,07).
The type specimen resides in the U.S. National Museum in
Washington, D.C., and others are available in the British Museum,
London, B.I., and Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI. Other
written, photographic, and specimen material is available for study at
the Division of Forestry and Wildlife in Honolulu. Several authors
provide good narrative descriptions of the koloa (01,03,08).
In addition to the English name Hawaiian duck and the Hawaiian
name koloa, Anas wyvilliana may be known by the common names koloa
maoli (or koloa-maoli) and koloa piwai.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found including the
State of Hawai'i. Critical Habitat has not been designated.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) (50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawaii
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered, Non-game Bird
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Ch. 195D; Admin.
Rules of Hawai'i, Sec. 13-124-2, Exhibit 1.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Hawaiian duck is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals (1986), and is listed by the U.S. in the Annex to
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Once hunted, this is now one of the many endemic birds of Hawai'i
sought by bird watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
76/05/05:41 FR 18618/18624 - Proposed rules for captive breeding
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Five year review
85/07/01:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Cropland and Pasture
Herbaceous Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial RB1
Riverine, lower perennial SB4
Riverine, lower perennial SB3
Riverine, lower perennial SB1
Riverine, lower perennial RB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB4
Riverine, lower perennial AB2
2AB
Lacustrine, littoral UB4
Lacustrine, littoral UB3
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral EM
Palustrine OW0
Palustrine EM6
Palustrine EM5
Palustrine EM1
Estuarine, intertidal EM6
Estuarine, intertidal EM5
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The koloa (Anas wyvilliana) is a bird of a wide variety of
aquatic habitats from sea level to 2,500 m (8,000 ft) on the islands
of Kaua'i, O'ahu, and Hawai'i (01,02). Specific lowland (below 305 m,
1,000 ft) fresh-water habitat types include (1) marshes, (2)
reservoirs, (3) wet pasture (grazed by cattle), (4) agricultural lands
(including sugar cane and rice), (5) taro patches, (6) mud-settling
basins, (7) irrigation ditches, and (8) aquaculture farms.
Occasionally, they inhabit coastal salt evaporation pond environs and
estuarine areas. Upland areas include mountain streams within dense
evergreen rain forests, stock-watering ponds, seeps, and subalpine
bogs (01,02,03,04,08). Differentiation of nesting, feeding, and
loafing habitat has not be detailed. Koloa may fill all these needs
in the same general area or utilize a given area for only feeding,
loafing, or nesting, depending on habitat conditions (03). On Kaua'i
and Hawai'i, the majority of koloa inhabit upland streams and
stockponds respectively; on O'ahu they are found in lowland wetlands
(03,04,12,13). Favored lowland habitats on Kaua'i include the Hanalei
Habitat Associations - 1 National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) taro fields, the Kipu reservoirs, the
Huleia NWR wetlands, the Mana ditch system, and sugar-cane water
settling basins in the vicinities of Koloa and Lihue. On O'ahu, they
are most abundant at the James Campbell NWR marshes and Amorient
Aquaculture Farms in Kahuku, the ponds and streams of Waimea Falls
Park, and at Kawainui Marsh in Kailua (14,15,16,17,18,19,20). Some
habitats are located in or near sewage treatment plants, resorts and
urban parks.
Environmental parameters have been described only briefly.
Upland streams used by koloa on Kaua'i are usually less than 6 m
(20 ft) wide, a few feet deep, with cobblestone and boulder bottoms
and frequent pools. Patches of smartweed (Polygonum sp.) and grasses
(Setaria sp., Paspalum sp.) occur along the sides adjacent to dense
forest (12). Rainfall may range up to 508 cm (200 in) per year, and
the mean annual temperature is 15.5 deg. C (60 deg. F) (10). On the
island of Hawai'i, montane streams are clear, shallow, fast-flowing
with numerous potholes, and may be bordered with a heavy vegetative
growth of ferns, native trees, ginger (Zingiber sp.) and Polygonum sp.
(12,21). High elevation pastoral stock ponds used by koloa are
shallow with gradually sloping shorelines and exposed mud. The mean
shoreline cover is 80% grass, 18% bare ground, and 2% forbs. Emergent
and floating vegetation in the ponds averages 16% and 6%,
respectively. Associated grasses include kikuyu (Pennisetum
clandestinium) and pangola (Digitaria decumbens) (12).
A few environmental descriptors were given for the Hawaiian duck
on eight lowland habitats on Kaua'i. Soils were described as: Malama
stony clay loam, Hanalei silty clay loam, Puhi silty clay loam, Lanai
silty loam, Kalopa silty clay, Kalihi clay, and Pakala clay loam. The
average water surface temperature was 23.3 deg. C (73.9 deg. F) (range
was 21-26.5 deg. C (69.8-79.7 deg. F); alkalinity, 95 (range 30-250);
dissolved oxygen, 4.7 (range 1.6-7.70); and carbon dioxide, 8.8
(3.8-19.0) in these areas (22). Lowland habitats on Kaua'i have a
mean annual temperature of 21 deg. C (70 deg. F) and receive from
50.8-254 cm (20-100 in) of rain annually (10). Other ecological
information specific to the koloa is unknown (08).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Algae
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Amphibia
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
G Human Association: Farm ponds
G
G Human Association: Public residential parks
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Koloa (Anas wyvilliana) are opportunistic, omnivorous feeders,
taking a wide variety of plants and animal matter (01,02,03,04,10).
Upland (mountain stream) food items include dragonfly (Anisoptera sp.)
and damselfly (Archilestes sp.) larvae, aquatic shrimp (Gammarus sp.),
isopods, earthworms (Lumbricus sp.), small leeches, snails and
smartweed (Polygonium sp.) (10). Foods described for lowland areas
were snails (Hydrobia porrectamigh and Melania sp.), earthworms,
crayfish (Gambarus sp.), filamentous green algae (Chlorophyceae), rice
(Oryza sativa), and barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), vasey
grass (Paspalum urvillei), and sedge (Scirpus sp.) seeds (03,10,
22,23). Although not documented it is apparent that koloa feed on
whatever plant and animal matter is available in their habitat. By
association, this may include fish (Gambusia sp.), many invertebrates,
tadpoles, other grass seeds, and leaf parts of a variety of plants
(02,10,22,23). More specific information on seasonal variability,
preferred food types, or foods necessary for survival are unknown (03,
08,10).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Virtually nothing is known about the territoriality of the koloa
in terms of home range, seasonal variations, behavior, or defense of
nest sites (08). On Kaua'i, there are indications that when all
habitat requirements (feeding, breeding, loafing) are available in an
area, koloa remain localized, moving only when the site becomes
unsuitable (03). On the island of Hawai'i, routine diurnal movements
between stream and stock pond habitats are suspected, which suggests a
home range of several miles (12). Historically, when extensive rice
and taro plantations were available, daily movement between mountain
habitats and these agricultural lands has been noted (24).
PERIODICITY:
Koloa are essentially diurnal in habit, although crepuscular and
nocturnal movements have been recorded (03,12,24). Seasonal habits
have been noted only as related to peak breeding periods (December
through May) (03,12). Little else is known.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The koloa is non-migratory. Instances of homing between release
sites and the captive-rearing facility on the island of Hawai'i 45 km
(28 miles) indicate an ability to traverse significant distances over
time (24 to 86 days) (12).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Cover and shelter requirements have been poorly studied. On the
island of Hawai'i there is some evidence that breeding birds prefer
stock ponds with ungrazed or lightly grazed shorelines (12). In
habitats on Kaua'i, stable water adjacent to vegetation for escape
cover and nesting sites seems necessary (03).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
The koloa nests on the ground, usually selecting dense grass near
water for the nest site (02,03,12). Nests have been noted on grassy
slopes or ridges adjacent to ponds, along irrigation ditches, near
rain puddles, in abandoned taro patches, in sugar-cane fields, and
along mountain streams (03,10,12). Some data indicate that these
ducks prefer pond sites to stream sites for nesting (03,12). On
Kaua'i, nests are often associated with honohono grass (Commelina
diffusa), but other descriptions of vegetation favored for nesting are
unavailable (03,08).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Based on studies of captive birds, koloa probably breed at one
year of age in the wild (01,03). Pair bonding has not been studied
but is probably the same as the common mallard (pair bonds break each
year) (08,25). Pre-nuptial flights occur, involving two or three
birds pacing back and forth on the ground, a vertical climb to 30 m
(100 ft) in the air, chasing in small aerial circles with the favored
male closest to the female, and occasional dives by the chosen male at
his rivals. Pre-nuptial concentrations have been noted from October
through November, but such groupings do not always precede breeding
(03). The breeding season is year-round, peaking from December
through May with most young hatching from May through June (01,02,03,
04,12). Nests are 30-46 cm (12-18 in) in diameter, 10 cm (4 in) deep,
and lined with down. From two to ten eggs are laid (average 8.3), and
the incubation period is 28-30 days (03,04). The female incubates the
eggs holding very close even when approached by observers. In a study
of 50 nests, the average brood size was 3.1 (03). Other reproductive
characteristics are unknown (08).
PARENTAL CARE:
The drake usually deserts the nest site prior to the hatching of
eggs (03). Young remain with the adult for several weeks after
hatching (02). Hens may lead young over land to adjacent wetlands to
escape harassment (12). Adults have been known to carry ducklings in
flight between their feet in moving between areas (03,05). Details of
parental care have not been studied.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
In 1967 it was estimated that 3,000 koloa inhabited the island of
Kaua'i; 98% in upland and 2% in lowland habitats (03). From the
1960's to the present, koloa have been included in annual censuses of
lowland habitats but no attempt has been made to extrapolate the data
into a total statewide population estimate (02,14,15,16,17,18,19,20).
In January, 1984, the statewide survey totaled 299 koloa with 177 on
Kaua'i, 98 on O'ahu, and 24 on Hawai'i (15). Incomplete coverage
(particularly of mountain stream habitats) and variations in census
techniques overtime make an analysis of population dynamics
impossible. Nothing is known of survival rates, mortality rates, rate
of increase, sex ratios, turnover rate, or longevity (08,14). Current
limiting factors include: continued loss of habitat due to expanding
urban development, predation, human disturbance, deliberate exclusion
from aquaculture farms, changing agricultural practices, and toxic
chemicals. Hybridization with domestic mallards may also be a factor
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
(02,04,08). The recovery objective is to provide and maintain a
population of 2,000 koloa for three consecutive years, at a minimum,
in the habitats and island distribution as of 1976. An excess of
2,000 koloa probably remain on Kaua'i. The goal for O'ahu and Hawai'i
is self-sustaining populations of 500 on each island (04).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The koloa has no causal relationship with other species, except
for their role as prey for predators and their dependence on man's
action for their survival (07).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
The koloa is a very wary bird, more so than other native
waterbirds, and flushes or hides at the first sign of danger in most
instances (02,12).
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Water Right Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Prescribed/controlled burning of habitat
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Sport Hunting/Fishing
Existing Sport Hunting/Fishing
Adverse Hybridization
Existing Hybridization
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Strip mining
Existing Strip mining
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The early Hawaiians may have collected koloa (Anas wyvilliana)
during their flightless period for food, but the overall impact on
populations is unknown (03,08). Hunting by man contributed
significantly to reductions of numbers and distribution in the late
1800's and particularly during the period 1902-1939 (03,09,10). The
cultivation of taro and maintenance of coastal fishponds by the
Hawaiians created "artificial" habitats which have since been
drastically reduced in acreage. The passing of rice culture in 1963
also eliminated habitat (01,03,04). The draining, filling or other
alteraton of wetlands by man for agriculture (e.g., grazing),
subdivisions, golf courses, industrial areas, military installations,
and resorts has undoubtedly been a major reason for the endangered
status of the Hawaiian duck (03,04,05.10). The construction of
reservoirs has both created and destoyed habitat for the duck.
Reservoirs designed with steep concrete banks completely eliminate
feeding and nesting habitat. Reservoirs designed with sloping,
vegetated banks provide feeding habitat and, occasionally, nesting
habitat. However, water drawdown in reservoirs reduces the amount of
suitable habitat, sometimes to the point of temporarily eliminating
the wetland entirely (08). Sewage treatment ponds create a food
supply for the duck and provide nesting areas as well (08).
Predation by mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) (on
islands other than Kaua'i), dogs (Canis familiaris), cats (Felis
domesticus), rats (Rattus spp.), large-mouth bass (Micropterus spp.),
bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana), feral pigs (Sus scrofa), herons
(Nycticorax nycticorax), possibly cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis),
owls (Tytoalba, Asio flammeus), and the common mynah (Acridotheres
tristis) have contributed to poor survival of young (01,02,03,04,05,
09,10). Exotic plant encroachment in the remaining wetlands, which
eliminates open water, is a serious limiting factor. Major culprits
include California grass (Brachiaria mutica), water hyacinth
(Eichornia crassipes), and mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) (04).
Flooding of nest or brood sites, human disturbance, collection of
ducklings for pets, toxins (botulism, 1080 poison), and illegal
shooting have all contributed to the present status of the koloa
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
(01,02,03,04). In recent years, hybridization with domestic species
(primarily free-flying domestic mallards on the island of O'ahu) has
created a threat to species purity (04,11). All factors described
above except legal hunting and the draining of major natural wetlands
are still operative, although management under Federal, State and
private auspices is minimizing their impacts (02,04,08).
Future threats perceived include continued loss or alteration of
small natural wetlands or artificial habitats by man, the possible
introduction of new predators (especially the mongoose to Kaua'i),
interbreeding with domestic mallards, toxic chemicals, changed
agricultural or aquacultural practices, and disturbance (04,08).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian
Waterbirds. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 99 pp.
The Hawaiian duck has declined due to loss or degradation of
habitat and to nest predation by introduced mammals. A unique and
serious threat is introgressive hybridization with feral mallards.
The revised Hawaiian Waterbirds Recovery Plan states as its prime
objective to maintain a minimum populaton of 2000 Hawaiian ducks with
a stable distribution of habitats as outlined in the original 1978
recovery plan. Progressive down-listing and delisting can be made
once specified areas of habitat are secured and the population rises
to 2000 or more birds, with a minimum of 500 birds each on Kaua'i and
Hawaii Islands, for six consecutive years.
Recommended recovery actions include:
1. Securing specified habitats on five islands (utilize cooperative
agreements, land acquisition, etc., to control development).
2. Development of cooperative agreements among the State and Federal
government and private landowners to provide for management of
wetland habitat on private lands and on government lands not held
by wildlife agencies.
3. Use regulatory authority and provide technical assistance to
landowners and agencies to protect and enhance wetlands (this
particularly applies to streams on Kaua'i, the principal habitat
of the Hawaiian duck); for example, partial fencing of ponds to
separate domestic stock watering areas from Hawaiian duck
habitat.
4. Identify additional habitat.
5. Manage habitat to maximize productivity by controlling water
levels; manage for desirable plants and control noxious
(primarily introduced) plants; provide shallow and deeper water
habitats (stream bank or channel modification); control predators
such as introduced mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) and rats
(Rattus spp.), feral cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis
familiaris), and native predators such as black-crowned night
herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) and cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis);
control human access to sensitive habitats; prevent poaching or
accidental shooting; prevent disease outbreaks; and restrict
habitat contamination by pesticides or other pollutants.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
6. Conduct management related research.
7. Continue population monitoring.
8. Generate public awareness and support for waterbird recovery
programs through education and dissemination of information.
9. Reduce or eliminate feral mallard populations.
10. Develop censusing techniques applicable to stream-dwelling
populations.
11. Rehabilitate and release injured birds.
12. Utilize captive propagation and release individuals into the
wild.
Although not specified in the Recovery Plan, some additional
actions are recommended. Acquisition of water rights may be needed to
properly manage some habitat. Prescribed burning to maintain early
successional stages is being researched and may prove to be a valuable
management tool.
Recovery actions accomplished or in progress are almost too
numerous to list. Foremost are the creation of (1) State sanctuaries
at Kanaha and Kealia Ponds and at Paiko Lagoon and (2) National
Wildlife Refuges (NWR), including Hanalei, Hule'ia, Kakaha'ia, Pearl
Harbor, and James Campbell NWR's. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS) is negotiating the acquisition of Kealia Pond. Management of
these refuges is controversial, particularly as to how water levels
and salinity should be regulated to maximize productivity of endemic
waterbirds. A research project funded by the USFWS and conducted by
the Univ. of Missouri is currently investigating problems of habitat
improvement and predator contol for Hawaiian waterbirds. Another
USFWS research project is a study of the biology and control of the
small Indian mongoose. Several of the NWR's have been fenced and are
subject to predator control. Development projects reviewed by the
Environmental Services Office of the USFWS often have been required to
take into account the protection or improvement of waterbird habitat;
mitigation has led to the creation of new habitat (including
artificial ponds and islands), such as Ho'omaluhia Park and
Punaho'olapa wetlands. Restoration of Hawaiian ducks into former
habitat began in 1958. Captive birds bred by the State at Pohakuloa
have become established on O'ahu and Hawai'i.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. An ornithological survey of Hawaiian
wetlands, Vol. 1. U.S. Army, Engineer District (Ahuimanu
Productions), Honolulu, HI.
03 Swedberg, G.E. 1967. The koloa. Dept. Land Natural Resources,
Honolulu, HI. 56 pp.
04 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
99 pp.
05 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publishing Co,
Honolulu, HI.
06 Stejneger, L. 1887. Further contributions to the Hawaiian
avifauna. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol.X:98-99.
07 Anon. 1983. A.O.U. checklist of North American birds, 6th ed.
Committee on Classification and Nomenclature. 877 pp.
08 Walker, R.L. 1985. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street,
Kaneohe, HI 96744.
09 Henshaw, H.W. 1903. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu, HI. 73-117.
10 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1953. Notes on the Hawaiian
duck. Wilson Bull. 65(1):18-25.
11 Bostwick, J.M. 1982. Habitat loss and hybridization: The dual
threat to the koloa. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of HI at Manoa, Honolulu.
12 Griffin, J.G. November, 1983. Abundance and distribution of koloa
on the island of Hawaii/movements, survival, reproductive success
and habitat of koloa on the island of Hawaii. Job Progress Report,
W-18-R-7/W-18-R-8, Job R-III-H, July 1, 1981 to July 31, 1983.
Hawaii Div. Forestry and Wildlife. 22 pp.
13 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. September, 1980.
Dispersal and survival of pen-reared koloa on the islands of Hawaii
and Oahu. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-III-B, July 1, 1979
to June 30, 1980. 4 pp.
14 Banko, W.E. 1985. History of endemic Hawaiian birds, Part 1.
Population histories--species accounts: Freshwater birds. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report 10. Available from: University of Hawaii at
Manoa, Dept. of Botany (C.W. Smith, Unit Director), Honolulu, HI.
15 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. June, 1985. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds in the State of Hawaii. Job Progress
Report, W-18-R-9, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1984 to January 31, 1985.
66 pp.
16 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1984. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-8, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1983
to January 31, 1984. 33 pp.
17 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. May, 1983. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-7, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1982 to
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
January 31, 1983. 35 pp.
18 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. April, 1982. Surveys
and inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-6, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1981
to January 31, 1982. 32 pp
19 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. [n.d.] Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1980
to January 31, 1981.
20 Hawaii Div. of For. & Wildl. July, 1980. Surveys and inventories
of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of Hawaii. Job Prog.
Rep., W-18-R-4, Job R-III-A, July 1, 1978 to Jan. 31, 1980. 56 pp.
21 Paton, P.W.C. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Waterbirds of Hawaii island.
Elepaio 45(8):69-76.
22 Telfer, T.C. September, 1975. Field investigations of native
Hawaiian waterbirds on the island of Kauai. Job Progress Report:
W-15-5, Job VIII-C(5), July 1, 1974 to June 30, 1975. Hawaii Div.
Forestry and Wildlife, Honolulu. 7 pp.
23 Telfer, T.C. September, 1976. Description of waterbird habitats
as related to food availability and feeding behavior of endangered
waterbird species on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. Job Progress
Report, W-18-R-1, Job R-III-D, July 1, 1975 to June 30, 1976.
Hawaii Div. Forestry and Wildlife, Honolulu. 18 pp.
24 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Fauna hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV,
vertebra. Cambridge University Press, London.
25 Johnsgard, P.A. 1975. Waterfowl of North America. Indiana Univ.
Press, Bloomington. Pages 239-240.
26 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Armstong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. The University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
99 pp.
03 Banko, W.E. 1985. History of endemic Hawaiian birds, Part 1.
Population histories--species accounts: Freshwater birds. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report 10. Available from: University of Hawaii at
Manoa, Dept. of Botany (C.W. Smith, Unit Director), Honolulu, HI.
04 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. An ornithological survey of Hawaiian
wetlands, Vol. 1. U.S. Army, Engineer District (Ahuimanu
Productions), Honolulu, HI.
05 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The University Pres of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
06 Swedberg, G.E. 1967. The koloa. Dept. Land Natural Resources,
Honolulu, HI. 56 pp.
07 Walker, R.L. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street, Kaneohe,
HI 96744.
08 Griffin, J.G. November, 1983. Abundance and distribution of koloa
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species DUCK, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101015
Date 14 MAR 96
on the island of Hawaii/movements, survival, reproductive success
and habitat of koloa on the island of Hawaii. Job Progress Report,
W-18-R-7/W-18-R-8, Job R-III-H, July 1, 1981 to July 31, 1983.
Hawaii Div. Forestry and Wildlife. 22 pp.
09 Anon. September 1980. Dispersal and survival of pen-reared koloa
on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5,
Job R-III-B, July 1, 1979 to June 30, 1980. 4 pp.
10 Henshaw, H.W. 1903. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu, HI. 73-117.
11 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1949. A reconnaissance of the
game birds in Hawaii. Hawaii Board of Commissioners of Agriculture
and Forestry, Honolulu, HI.
12 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1953. Notes on the Hawaiian
duck. Wilson Bull. 65(1):18-25.
13 Paton, P.W.C. 1981. The koloa (Hawaiian duck) of the island of
Hawaii. Elepaio 41(12):131-133.
14 Saito, R.S. 1975. Field investigation of native Hawaiian
waterbirds on the island of Oahu. Job Progress Report, W-15-5,
VII-D(2), July 1, 1974 to June 30, 1975. Hawaii Div. Forestry and
Wildlife, Honolulu, HI. 30 pp.
15 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. June, 1985. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds in the State of Hawaii. Job Progress
Report, W-18-R-9, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1984 to January 31, 1985.
66 pp.
16 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1984. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-8, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1983
to January 31, 1984. 33 pp.
17 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. May, 1983. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-7, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1982 to
January 31, 1983. 35 pp.
18 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. [n.d.] Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-6, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1981
to January 31, 1982.
19 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. [n.d.] Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1980
to January 31, 1981.
20 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1980. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-4, Job R-III-A, July 1, 1978
to January 31, 1980. 56 pp.
21 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publishing Co,
Honolulu, HI.
22 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Fauna hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV,
vertebra. Cambridge University Press, London.
23 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.
References - 3