(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - AKEPA, HAWAII
OTHER COMMON NAMES - AKEPA, HAWAII; 'AKEPA and HAWAI'I;AKAKANE;'AKAKANE; AKEPEUIE; 'AKEPEU'IE; 'O'U-HOLOLO-WAI
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - LOXOPS,
SPECIES AND SSP - COCCINEUS, COCCINEUS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - LOXOPS COCCINEUS COCCINEUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaii Akepa
Loxops coccineus coccineus (Gmelin, 1789)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
Hawai'i 'akepa are small birds 10 to 12.5 cm in length (01).
They have short, conical bills in which the tips of the mandibles are
twisted slightly in opposite directions, as in the crossbills (01).
The tail is longer and more deeply notched than in other honeycreepers
(01). The species is sexually dimorphic (02). The male is scarlet
(bright orange-red); the female is greenish above and lighter below,
being yellowish on the breast (03).
This species is the type of the genus Loxops, and thus has always
had some form of its present scientific name since the genus was
erected in 1847 by Cabanis - the only change coming under the rules of
the International Committee for Zoological Nomenclature, Code Art.
30(a) (1) and (3), that required the specific epithet to agree in
gender with the generic name, particularly those with latinized
terminations to Greek words (04,05). Due to this rule, the specific
epithet changed from coccinea to coccineus (01,02), effective 1961.
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
The species was originally described (from this subspecies) by Gmelin
in 1789 (05). The common name of this subspecies is almost always
given as Hawai'i 'akepa (or Hawaii akepa); although Munro gave akakane
(or 'akakane) and akepeuie (or 'akepeu'ie) as alternates, these are
virtually never seen in the literature (03). Another Hawaiian name is
'o'u-hololo-wai.
The location of the holotype was not reported in the specimen
survey by Banko (06). In the United States, 71 specimens are in the
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu, Hawai'i; 51 specimens are in
the American Museum of Natural History; 12 specimens are in the Museum
of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA; 10
specimens are in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington,
D.C.; 7 specimens are in the Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles,
CA; 3 specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the
University of California, Berkeley, CA.; 2 specimens are in the
Cornell University Museum in Ithada, NY; 2 specimens are in the
University of Michigan collection at Ann Arbor, MI; 1 specimen is in
the Peabody Museum of Yale University at New Haven, CT; and 1 specimen
is in the Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park collection in Hawai'i
National Park, HI (06).
Illustrations of the species may be found in "Hawaiian birdlife"
by Berger (01), "The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae)" by
Amadon (02), "A field guide to western birds" by Peterson (07),
"Hawaii's birds" by Shallenberger (08), "Birds of Hawaii" by Munro
(03), "The avifauna of Laysan and the neighbouring islands" by Baron
Rothschild (09), "Aves Hawaiienses: the birds of the Sandwich Islands"
by Wilson and Evans (10), and "Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian
Islands: Their dynamics, ecology, and conservation" by Scott, et al.
(11).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawai'i 'akepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus) has been
designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found
including the State of Hawaii.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3). This 'akepa has possible
occurrence on Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park,
consequently the the National Park Service (NPS) has
responsibility for the management and protection of
this species wherever it is found on NPS lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species in the IUCN Red Data Book and is also listed by
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The Hawai'i 'akepa is an insectivore, extracting insects hidden
in leaf buds of trees. It is one of the rare birds sought on Hawai'i
by bird watchers.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
74/01/04:39 FR 01171/01178 - List of Foreign & US Endangered Wildlife
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Hawai'i 'akepa occur from 1,100 to 2,100 m elevation, with
highest densities occurring at 1,500-2,100 m (11). They occur in
mesic to wet 'ohi'a, koa-'ohi'a, and koa-mamane forests, and are most
common in tall mesic koa forests, although in the Kau District
densities are highest at timberline in mesic 'ohi'a woodland (11).
They may also occur in the corridor of open pasture/rangeland with
scattered trees on the northeast slope of Mauna Kea below
Kanakaleonui.
Six nests have been reported in the literature (17,18). Two were
in live 'ohi'a trees, 2 in 'ohi'a snags, 1 in a live koa, and 1 in a
koa snag (17). All six were in cavities (17).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Snags: Unknown
G Tree Cavities: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
So far as known, the Hawai'i 'akepa feeds entirely on insects
(particularly caterpillars), spiders, and other invertebrates gleaned
and probed from foliage surfaces and from within leaf axils, leaf
buds, flower buds, and sometimes koa seed pods (11,14,15).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Nothing is known of the home range territory.
PERIODICITY:
The Hawai'i 'akepa is a diurnal bird (16). Nothing is known of
the seasonal variation in its habits.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Hawai'i 'akepa is non-migratory (01).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Hawai'i 'akepa requires native forest or woodland vegetation
for cover and shelter (11). They occur in mesic to wet 'ohi'a,
koa-'ohi'a, and koa-mamane forests, and are most common in tall mesic
koa forests, although in the Kau District densities are highest at
timberline in mesic 'ohi'a woodland (11). They may also occur in the
corridor of open pasture/rangeland with scattered trees on the
northeast slope of Mauna Kea below Kanakaleonui.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Six nests have been reported in the literature (17,18). Two were
in live 'ohi'a trees, 2 in 'ohi'a snags, 1 in a live koa, and 1 in a
koa snag (17). All six were in cavities (17). The height range was
from 1 to 11 m (17). Mature trees and snags appear to be required for
nesting (17). Nothing is known of the reproductive site requirements
beyond this.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Nests have been observed from March to May, but probably an
extended breeding season is typical (17). Little is known about the
reproductive characteristics.
PARENTAL CARE:
In one intensively studied nest, only the female incubated the
two eggs (17). Hawai'i 'akepa usually form family groups towards the
end of the breeding cycle (16), but very little is known of their
breeding behavior.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The current population is estimated to be about 14,000 birds
(11). The population is thought to be currently limited by (a) avian
disease, which appears to be responsible for 74% of apparently
suitable habitat being unoccupied (13); (b) habitat degradation due to
feral ungulates and domestic cattle - activities of the feral pig (Sus
scrofa) appear to reduce the population density by 4% (11,13);
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
(c) competition for food resources from introduced birds - the
Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) appears to be responsible for
a 6% reduction in density (11,13); (d) reduction in habitat quality
because of exotic plant invasion, particularly banana poka (Passiflora
mollissima) (11); and (e) predation from mongooses (Herpestes
auropunctatus), black rats (Rattus rattus), Polynesian rats (R.
exulans), and feral cats (Felis catus) (11,19).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Occurrence of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox
(Poxvirus avium) would probably preclude the presence of Hawai'i
'akepa in an area because of the suspected susceptibility and low
resistance of Hawai'i 'akepa to these diseases (11,20,21,22). The
obligate vector for malaria and facultative vector for pox in these
areas is the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus (23).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Invertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Habitat loss and disease are the primary factors for the present
status of this species (11). Habitat loss began with burning and
clearing activities of the Polynesian colonists circa 400 AD (11,12).
It continued in the 19th century through koa harvest, cattle grazing,
and feral ungulate damage (11). Approximately 62% of the original
range has been lost through conversion to exotic vegetation (13).
Goats impacted upper elevation portions of the range, but their impact
is currently limited (11). Pigs (Sus scrofa) probably first
significantly penetrated the range after introduction of the European
boar; adverse habitat modification by pigs depresses population levels
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
and leads to severe erosion (11,13).
The other primary reason for the present status is disease and
parasites. Based on the distribution of Hawai'i 'akepa and that of
mosquitoes, the distribution of the Hawai'i 'akepa appears to be
limited by avian malaria and pox (11). An estimated 74% of the
available habitat appears to be unoccupied due to the presence of
disease vectors (13). Competition for food with the introduced
Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) and predation from introduced
mammalian predators [e.g., mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), rats
(Rattus spp.), and feral cats (Felis catus)] also may be responsible
for limiting the population.
Future threats are difficult to envision, but might possibly
include wildfire, excessive feral ungulate damage, and imported plant
pests and disease vectors or parasites (11).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawai'i Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 76 pp.
The Hawai'i 'akepa still occupies much of its former range at
high elevations on the windward half of the island of Hawai'i and is
in a few locations in the Kona districts. Nevertheless, this range is
now patchy. The Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery Plan proposes that the
species can be down-listed to threatened status when it occupies a
minimum of 90% of the existing habitat and when its habitat and
population are determined to be stable.
The Recovery Plan emphasizes protection of habitat by;
1) Securing the habitat and/or favorably influencing land management
practices (e.g., managing for koa and natural areas, which may
involve restricting timber harvesting and controlling agricultural
practices).
2) Controlling mammalian predators.
3) Reducing mosquito breeding sites.
4) Controlling exotic plants, such as banana poka.
5) Restoring native forests in pastures.
6) Reducing/eliminating feral and domestic ungulate populations.
The plan lists all lands encompassing essential habitat. The plan
also recommends;
1) Further surveys and studies of Hawai'i 'akepa.
2) Reducing possibilities for introduction of new avian parasites
and disease.
3) Developing a public relations program.
4) Developing avicultural procedures for rearing endangered birds,
should it become necessary to breed the species in captivity.
Recovery actions ongoing or completed include;
1) Ongoing acquisition of forest lands for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge,
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
2) Ongoing removal of feral ungulates form Hawai'i Volcanoes National
Park,
3) Declaration of three Natural Area Reserves on State lands:
Kipahoehoe, Laupahoehoe, and Pu'u Maka'ala, and
4) Ongoing planning and implementation of a program for captive
breeding of endangered birds by the State, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, and several mainland zoos.
Much still needs to be done, particularly the securing of prime
habitat in the Kilauea Forest Reserve and on adjacent Keauhou Ranch
lands.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawai'i,
Honolulu.
02 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves:Drepaniidae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:151-262.
03 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
04 American Ornithologists' Union. July 1973. Thirty-second
supplement to the American Ornithologist' Union check-list of North
American birds. Auk 90:411-419.
05 American Ornithologist' Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
06 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian History Report 2, Coop. Nat. Park. Res.
Studies Unit, University of Hawai'i, Honolulu.
07 Peterson, R.T. 1961. A field guide to western birds, 2nd rev. ed.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
08 Shallenberger, R. 1984. Hawaii's birds, 3rd rev. ed. Hawai'i
Audubon Soc., Honolulu.
09 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
10 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
11 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
12 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
13 Mountainspring, S. 1985. A quantitative analysis of limiting
factors of Hawaiian honeycreepers. File report, Mauna Loa Field
Station, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
14 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
15 Richards, L.P. and W.J. Beck. 1973. Functional anatomy and
adaptive evolution of the feeding apparatuis in the Hawaiian
honeycreeper genus Loxopx (Drepanididae). Ornithol. Monogr. 15.
16 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Personal observations. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
17 Collins, M.S. 1984. Observations on the nesting of the Hawaii
'akepa. 'Elepaio 45:1-2.
18 Sincock, J.L. and J.M. Scott. 1980. Cavity nesting of the akepa
on the island of Hawaii. Wilson Bull. 92:261-263.
19 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
20 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
21 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47. Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. Hawaii,
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKEPA, HAWAII
Species Id ESIS101016
Date 14 MAR 96
Honolulu.
22 van Riper, S.G. and C. van Riper, III. 1985. A summary of known
parasites and diseases recorded from the avifauna of the Hawaiian
Islands. Pages 298-371. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems:
Preservation and management. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, eds.
Univ. Press Hawai'i, Honolulu.
23 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawai'i,
Honolulu.
02 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
03 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu.
04 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
References - 2