(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PALILA
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PALILA; 'O'U-PO'OPAPALE;'O'U PO'OPAPALE
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - LOXIOIDES,
SPECIES AND SSP - BAILLEUI,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - LOXIOIDES BAILLEUI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Palila
Loxioides bailleui (Oustalet, 1877)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
The Palila is a large-billed, large-headed bird about 15.25 cm
long with a golden-yellow head and throat but with a gray back; the
abdomen is grayish white; the lores are blackish; the bill is dark in
color and is not hooked or parrot-like (01). The female's throat and
breast are duller than in the male; the crown is only slightly
yellowish (02).
The Palila is currently placed in the monotypic genus Loxioides,
but in the past it was included with several other allied species in
Psittirostra (02,03). The taxonomic author is Oustalet, who described
the species in 1877 (04). The Palila is also known by the Hawaiian
name 'o'u-po'opapale (or o'u' po'opapale).
The holotype is located in the Museum National d'Histoire
Naturelle in Paris, France (05). In the United States collections may
be found in the [number of specimens are given in brackets]: Museum
of Natural History in New York, NY [21]; Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
in Honolulu, HI [18]; Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University
of California, Berkeley, CA. [10]; Museum of Comparative Zoology at
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA [5]; National Museum of Natural
History in Washington, D.C. [5]; Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, PA
[2]; California Academy of Science collection in Los Angeles, CA [2];
Academy of Natural Sciences collection at Philadelphia, PA [1]; Los
Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, CA [1]; and the Peabody Museum at
Yale University, New Haven, CT [1] (05).
Illustrations of the species may be found in "Hawaiian birdlife"
by Berger (01), "The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae)" by
Amadon (02), "Hawaii's birds" by Shallenberger (06), "A field guide to
western birds" by Peterson (07), "Birds of Hawaii" by Munro (08), "The
avifauna of Laysan and the neighbouring islands" by Baron Rothschild
(09), "Aves Hawaiienses: the birds of the Sandwich Islands" by Wilson
and Evans (10), "Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands:
Their dynamics, ecology, and conservation" by Scott, et al. (11).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Palila (Loxioides bailleui) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii. Critical Habitat has been designated on the
Island of Hawai'i (50 CFR 17.95 (b)) in portions of the Mauna Kea
Forest Reserve, U.S. Army Pohakuloa Training Area, Ka'ohe Game
Management Area, and other areas.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species in the IUCN Red Data Book, 1977; and is also listed
by the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in
the Western Hemisphere, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The Palila is one of the rare birds sought on Hawai'i by bird
watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
69/03/08:34 FR 05034/05035 - Republication of list
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed relisting
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule on previous list
76/12/22:41 FR 55729/55732 - Proposed ruling on Critical Habitat
77/03/11:42 FR 13569/ - Correction of error in proposed rule
77/08/11:42 FR 40685/40690 - Final rule, Critical Habitat
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The present habitat of the Palila is the subalpine mamane-naio
(Sophora chrysophylla-Myoporum sandwicense) woodland on Mauna Kea
(13). Palila are found from 2,000 to 2,850 m elevation in woodlands
with at least 5% canopy cover and of 2-10 m height (13). Palila are
thermally stressed at 37 degrees C (17).
The Palila shows habitat preferences because densities of birds
can be as much as 100 times greater in some habitat types than in
others. The species prefers areas with greater crown cover, taller
trees, and higher proportion of native plants in the understory (13).
Possibly some of the areas meeting the minimal habitat requirements
would be unable to sustain a population; the birds occurring in these
areas at present may merely represent population overflow or dispersal
(11). An area of possible occurrence includes the sparse woodlands
and open pastures with scattered trees on the northern and
northwestern slopes of Mauna Kea, in the Humu'ula Saddle, and on the
eastern slopes of Mauna Kea.
Nest trees average 6.9 m in height and 83.4 cm in circumference
at breast height. Both of these measurements are near the maximum for
trees in the area (19). Nest placement averages 5.2 m above ground,
and are placed on horizontal branches, some on terminal or lateral
forks (19).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Coniferae
General Arthropods
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The staple food item of Palila is the green, fully-inflated pods
of the mamane tree (Sophora chrysophylla); other food items
contributing significantly to the diet include mamane flowers, mamane
leaf buds, mamane flower buds, naio (Myoporum sandwicense) flowers,
naio berries, and insects (01,06,08,13,18,19,20,21). Little is known
about seasonal variation in the food parts consumed. Juvenile and
adult diets are similar (19).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Palila are territorial during the breeding season (19). Early in
the breeding cycle, the territory is a "mate-defended area", with the
male excluding all conspecifics from the vicinity of the female,
usually by song and direct chase (19). As incubation begins, defense
centers more on the nest, with females infrequently chasing other
birds (19). Two measured territories were 0.39 ha and 0.06 ha (19).
Territories are abandoned when the young fledged (19). The birds then
join small feeding flocks (19). Some individuals return to the same
area to nest the following year (13).
PERIODICITY:
The Palila is a diurnal bird (22). Breeding activity occurs from
March through September and moult from May through December (19).
Birds have a wider distribution in the non-breeding season (21).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Palila is non-migratory (22).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Palila requires mamane-naio woodland vegetation for cover and
shelter. These woodlands have at least 5% canopy cover and are 2-10
m in height. Preferred habitat contains greater crown cover, taller
trees, and a higher proportion of native plants in the understory
(13).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Requirements, as opposed to observed patterns, are unknown.
Average tree height of 26 nest trees was 6.9 m, circumference at
breast height 83.4 cm; both values were near the maxima for trees in
the area (19). Nest placement averaged 5.2 m above ground; 15 nests
were on horizontal branches, 4 on terminal forks, and 7 on lateral
forks (19). Mean distance of 26 nests from the trunk was 2.7 m and
from the end of the branch 1.05 m (19). Nest base usually consists of
large dead twigs broken off and collected from the nest tree (19).
The bowl is composed of interwoven grasses and sometimes sheep wool,
and lined with lichens or fine grasses and rootlets (19). Width of 26
nests averaged 14.7 cm, total height 7.7 cm, bowl depth 3.9 cm, and
bowl width 7.4 cm (19).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Breeding occurs from March through September, with most intensive
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
breeding from June to August (19). Low advertising flights are given
by males during courtship, and sexual chasing occurs in the early
breeding season (19). There is but one nesting per year (19). Pair
bond appears to be the norm for mating relationships (19). Nest sites
are selected by females (19). Clutch size is usually 2 (19).
Incubation period is 15-16 days (19).
PARENTAL CARE:
Length of development from hatching to fledging is 21-27 days;
parents may accompany young for over 30 days after fledging (19).
Only the females broods, and females feed the young more than males
(19). Development is altricial (19). Family bond duration is
unknown.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The population is currently limited by (a) levels of food
availability; (b) adverse habitat modification (c) possibly avian
malaria and pox in Pohakuloa Flats; (d) drought and storms; (e)
thermal stress; and (f) human disturbance (11,13). Survival rate,
mortality rate, rate of increase, sex ratio, turnover rate, and
longevity are unknown. The draft revised Recovery Plan suggests a
population density of 25 birds/square km covering 200 square km or
more throughout the mamane belt on Mauna Kea. For the Palila
population to increase, the mamane forest must be expanded first.
Reproductive success (number of eggs laid that fledged young) was 52
pct. during 1972-1975 (19). Population varies as much as 50% between
years from a high of 6,410 birds in 1981 and low of 1,317 birds in
1985 (13,23).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The Palila's life cycle is closely tied with that of the mamane
tree (01,02,06,07,08,09,10,11,13,16,18,19,20,21). Occurrence of avian
malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox (Poxvirus avium) would
probably preclude the presence of Palila in an area because of
susceptibility and low resistance to these diseases (11,13,24,25,26,
27). The obligate vector for malaria and facultative vector for pox
in these areas is the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus (28).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Suppressing wildfire
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Artillery/Explosions
Existing Artillery/Explosions
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Habitat destruction of low elevation dry forests and woodlands
by Hawaiians probably significantly reduced the range of the Palila
during the period from 400 A.D. to perhaps 1000 A.D. (12). Palila
were extirpated from Kona between 1896 and 1936, probably as a
response to the spread of avian diseases, particularly malaria and pox
(13). Feral ungulates - first cattle, then sheep and to a lesser
extent goats, and now (1985) mouflon - have had a severe impact on the
mamane-naio ecosystem on Mauna Kea (13,14). The degradation and
fragmentation of the subalpine woodland by feral ungulates followed in
some areas by erosion, has contributed greatly to the reduction in
range and population size of the Palila (13). Fire affected several
hundred hectares in 1979 (13). Predators [black rats (Rattus rattus,
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
cats (Felis catus)] doubtlessly have some impact on the population,
but this has not been quantitatively studied (15). Climate affects
the population through droughts and storms; production of the chief
food item is related to rainfall (13,16). Palila are absent or very
rare in apparently good habitat in the Pohakuloa Flats area; probable
causes are excessive disturbance from military activity (explosions,
off-road vehicles, etc.), disease, high temperatures, food supply
shortages at certain seasons, and site tenacity (13).
Future threats are difficult to envision, but might possibly
include wildfire, excessive feral ungulate damage, excessive
disturbance from development activities at Halepohaku, excessive
disturbance from increased military activity, and imported disease
vectors or parasites (11).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Revised Palila Recovery Plan.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 49 pp.
With its life history inextricably tied to a primary food
source - the ripening seeds of the mamane tree - the Palila provides
a relatively straight forward, albeit controversial, case of
endangered species management. Forests of mamane, and with them the
Palila, once enjoyed a wider distribution than they do today. Now
that extensive stands of the tree can only be found on Mauna Kea, the
range of the bird is also very restricted. The revised Palila
Recovery Plan considers that before the species may be delisted it
must, for a period of 5 years, exceed population densities of 25
birds/square km covering 200 square km or more throughout the mamane
belt on Mauna Kea. For the Palila population to increase, the mamane
forest must be expanded first.
The Recovery Plan recommends the following actions to improve
Palila habitat or in other ways benefit the species:
1) Eliminate mouflon, feral sheep, and feral goats that are
increasing again in the mamane forest and detrimentally impacting
it.
2) Improve stock proof fences protecting these forests.
3) Increase the Mauna Kea forest reserves by incorporating additional
state lands, utilizing leases to limit agricultural practices, and
easements, and land acquisition.
4) Control incursion of alien plants.
5) Prevent fires.
6) Continue studies of limiting factors, especially to learn why
Palila are absent from the Pohakuloa Flats.
7) Determine the effect of avian disease upon the Palila needs to be
determined and appropriate management actions taken.
8) As understanding of the mamane forest increases, assess and
implement approaches for habitat rehabilitation.
9) Initiate an information and education program to encourage public
support of these conservation efforts, which have often been
criticized by hunters demanding that Mauna Kea be managed for
sheep, mouflon, and goats.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
Recovery actions ongoing or completed include:
1) Studies of how feral sheep and mouflon impact mamane forest,
completed.
2) Agency conducted hunts to eradicate feral sheep and goats,
completed, a federal court order initiated this action.
3) Fence maintenance, ongoing.
4) Determining Critical Habitat, completed.
5) Surveys and research on Palila biology, ongoing with much
accomplished.
6) Incorporation of other State lands with the Mauna Kea forest
reserves, ongoing, initial contacts have been made by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. Univ. Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves:Drepaniidae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:151-262.
03 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North
American birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
04 Oustalet, M. 1877. Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom. Paris, Ser. 7,1.
P. 100.
05 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian History Report 2, Coop. Nat. Park. Res.
Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
06 Shallenberger, R. 1984. Hawaii's birds, 3rd rev. ed. Hawaii
Audubon Soc., Honolulu.
07 Peterson, R.T. 1961. A field guide to western birds, 2nd rev. ed.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
08 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
09 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
10 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: the
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
11 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
12 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
13 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, C. van Riper III, C.B. Kepler, J.D.
Jacobi, T.A. Burr, and J.G. Griffin. 1984. Annual variation in
the distribution, abundance, and habitat response of the palila
(Loxioides bailleui). Auk 101:647-664.
14 Tomich, P.Q. 1969. Mammals in Hawaii: A synopsis and notational
bibliography. Spec. Publ. 57, B.P. Bishop Mus, Honolulu.
15 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
16 van Riper, C., III. 1980. The phenology of the dryland forest of
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, and the impact of recent environmental
perturbations. Biotropica 12:282-291.
17 Weathers, W.W. and C. van Riper III. 1982. Temperature regulation
in two endangered Hawaiian honeycreepers: The palila (Psittirostra
bailleui) and the Laysan finch (Psittirostra cantans).
Auk 99:667-674.
18 van Riper, C., III. 1978. The breeding biology of the amakihi
(Loxops virens) and palila (Psittirostra bailleui) on Mauna Kea,
Hawaii. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
19 van Riper, C., III. 1980. Observations on the breeding of the
palila, Psittirostra bailleui of Hawaii. Ibis 122:462-475.
20 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PALILA
Species Id ESIS101017
Date 14 MAR 96
21 van Riper, C., III, J.M. Scott, and D.M. Woodside. 1978.
Distribution and abundance patterns of the Palila on Mauna Kea,
Hawaii. Auk 95:518-527.
22 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Personal observations. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
23 Anon. [n.d.] File data. Mauna Loa Field Station, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
24 van Riper, C., III. Unpublished data. Cooperative National Park
Resources Studies Unit, University of California, Davis, CA.
25 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
26 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47, Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
27 van Riper, S.G. and C. van Riper, III. 1985. A summary of known
parasites and diseases recorded from the avifauna of the Hawaiian
Islands. Pages 298-371. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems:
Preservation and management. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, eds.
Univ. Press Hawaii, Honolulu.
28 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. Univ. Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 365.
03 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
04 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, C. van Riper III, C.B. Kepler, J.D.
Jacobi, T.A. Burr, and J.G. Griffin. 1984. Annual variation in
the distribution, abundance, and habitat responses of the palila
(Loxioides bailleui). Auk 101: 647-664.
05 Anon. [n.d.] Field data files. Mauna Loa Field Station, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service.
06 van Riper, C., III, J.M. Scott, and D.M. Woodside. 1978.
Distribution and abundance patterns of the Palila on Mauna Kea,
Hawaii. Auk 95:518-527.
07 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
08 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighbouring islands. R.H. Porter, London.
References - 2