(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PARROTBILL, MAUI
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PARROTBILL, MAUI; FINCH, KOA, PARROT-BILLED; FINCH, KOA- and PARROT-BILLED; PSEUDONESTOR
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PSEUDONESTOR,
SPECIES AND SSP - XANTHOPHRYS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PSEUDONESTOR XANTHOPHRYS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Maui Parrotbill
Pseudonestor xanthophrys Rothschild, 1893
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
The Maui parrotbill is 14 cm long and generally olive-green in
color (01). It has a golden yellow superciliary line, a short tail,
and a large hooked parrot-like bill (01).
The Maui parrotbill has always been placed in the monotypic genus
Pseudonestor (02). The taxonomic author is Rothschild, who described
the species in 1893 (03). Other common names used in the past for the
species have been parrot-billed koa finch (or parrot-billed koa-finch)
and Pseudonestor (04).
The holotype is located in the American Museum of Natural History
in New York, NY (05). In the United States 11 specimens are in the
American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY; 6 specimens are in
the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu, HI; 2 specimens are in
the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, Cambridge,
MA; and 2 specimens are in the National Museum of Natural History in
Washington, D.C. (05).
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
Illustrations of the species may be found in "Hawaiian birdlife"
by Berger (01), "The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae)" by
Amadon (02), "Hawaii's birds" by Shallenberger (06), "A field guide to
western birds" by Peterson (07), "Birds of Hawaii" by Munro (04),
"The avifauna of Laysan and the neighbouring islands" by Baron
Rothschild (08), "Aves Hawaiienses: The birds of the Sandwich
Islands" by Wilson and Evans (09), and "Forest birds communities of
the Hawaiian Islands: Their dynamics, ecology, and conservation" by
Scott, Mountainspring, Ramsey and Kepler (10).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Maui parrotbill (Pseudonestor xanthophrys) has been
designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status wherever found
including the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
This species is listed as an endangered species by IUCN and is
also listed by the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, 1970. It is not listed by
CITES.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The Maui parrotbill was formerly important to forest ecosystems
as an insectivore. It is among the many rare birds sought on Maui by
bird watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
69/03/08:34 FR 05034/05035 - Updated list
70/03/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Maui parrotbills are distributed from 1,250 to 2,150 m elevation,
being about 3 times as abundant at 1,750-2,000 m elevation as at
1,400-1,750 m (11). 80% of the range is wet 'ohi'a forest, 14 pct.
is mesic subalpine 'ohi'a forest, 5% is mesic koa-'ohi'a, and 1% mesic
subalpine scrub (11). Canopy cover ranges from 5% to nearly 100% and
canopy height varies from 1.8 to 18.3 m; Maui parrotbill usually occur
in areas with about 50% cover and 6.0 18.3 m canopy height (11).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
So far as known, the Maui parrotbill feeds entirely on insects
(11). Excavation of timber-boring insects comprises a major portion
of the foraging behavior, although foliage caterpillars are an
important food of young birds (11).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Maui parrotbills are territorial during the breeding season, the
male defending an area from other males (11). The bird is relatively
sedentary, but specific aspects of its territorial behavior are not
known (11).
PERIODICITY:
The Maui parrotbill is a diurnal bird (14), but its periodicity
is otherwise not known.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Non-migratory (11).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Maui parrotbill requires rainforest vegetation for cover and
shelter (11). About 80% of the range is wet 'ohi'a forest, 14% is
mesic subalpine 'ohi'a forest, 5% is mesic koa-'ohi'a, and 1% mesic
subalpine scrub (11). Canopy cover ranges from 5% to nearly 100% and
canopy height varies from 1.8 to 18.3 m; Maui parrotbill usually occur
in areas with about 50% cover and 6 to 18.3 m canopy height (11).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
On 13 January 1985, the only positively identified nest was found
(11). This nest was placed 11 m high in the terminal forks of an
'ohi'a tree. The nest was about 18 cm in diameter, of cup-like shape,
and generally constructed from small twigs and other woody material
(11). The nest was too inaccessible to reach or determine any
contents, and was possibly a cock nest (11).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Virtually nothing is known of the breeding patterns (11).
Immature birds in family groups soliciting food from adult birds have
been recorded in every month from March to September, with the
greatest number (3-7 reports per field trip) from June through August
(11).
PARENTAL CARE:
Parent birds feed the young for some time after fledging, but
otherwise virtually nothing is known of parental care (11).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The population is thought to be currently limited by: (a) levels
of food availability; (b) adverse habitat modification; (c) avian
malaria and pox at lower elevations; and (d) drought and storms (10,
11). Survival rate, mortality rate, rate of increase, sex ratio,
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
turnover rate, longevity, and population density objective under
management are unknown. The population was estimated at 500 birds in
1980 (10).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Occurrence of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox
(Poxvirus avium) probably preclude the presence of Maui parrotbills in
many otherwise suitable areas because of the suspected susceptibility
and low resistance of Maui parrotbills to these diseases (10,11,15,16,
17). The obligate vector for malaria and facultative vector for pox
in these areas is the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus (18).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Habitat loss and disease are the primary factors for the present
status of this species (11). Habitat loss began with burning and
clearing activities of the Polynesian colonists about 400 A.D. (11,
12). It continued in the 19th century through koa harvest, cattle
grazing, and feral ungulate damage (10). Approximately 86 percent of
the original range has been converted to exotic vegetation (19).
Goats impacted upper elevation portions of the range, but their impact
is currently limited (10). Pigs probably first significantly
penetrated the range after introduction of the European boar; adverse
habitat modification by pigs significantly depresses population levels
and leads to severe erosion (11). Pig activity appears to have
reduced Maui parrotbill densities by 46% (19). Introduction of exotic
plants has also probably reduced habitat quality because Maui
parrotbills are restricted to areas with native vegetation (11).
The other primary reason for the present status is disease and
parasites. Based on their distribution and that of mosquitoes, the
Maui parrotbill appears to be susceptible to avian malaria and avian
pox (10,11). Similar susceptibility in other species appears to be
the major factor limiting occurrence at elevations below 1525 m (the
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
common upper elevational occurrence of mosquitoes) (10,11).
Approximately 80% of the available habitat is unoccupied because of
avian disease (19). Predation from cats and rats no doubt also causes
some mortality (11,13). Competition from introduced insects for food
may also reduce numbers, but is not presently thought to be a limiting
factor (11).
Future threats are difficult to envision, but might possibly
include excessive feral ungulate damage, imported disease vectors or
parasites, and volcanic eruptions (10).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
Though Federally Endangered, the Maui parrotbill does maintain
a small population over much of the habitat still available to it.
Captive breeding of this species is given low priority by the Maui
Forest Birds Recovery Plan. The recovery plan states as its principal
recovery action the securing of essential habitat, to be managed for
forest birds. All essential habitat lies on the upper slopes of
Haleakala within the boundary of the Haleakala National Park or on
state or private lands (including the Nature Conservancy lands) zoned
as a Conservation District. The recovery plan calls for acquisition
of conservation easements on private lands (other than those held by
The Nature Conservancy) to facilitate active management. Management
of habitat would involve control of feral ungulates, rodents,
mosquitoes (disease vectors), and alien plants. Further research and
censusing of parrotbills is needed. The recovery plan also recommends
public education as a way of improving support for recovery programs.
On Maui, The Nature Conservancy acquired a conservation easement
to a large parcel of essential habitat for forest birds, including
parrotbills. This Waikamoi Preserve is near State-owned lands where
the species occurs. Future management planned for Waikamoi should
improve (rehabilitate) the habitat for forest birds. At Haleakala
National Park, a program to control feral ungulates is well underway.
Included is Kipahulu Valley, a site inhabited by parrotbills. Lack of
management of essential forest bird habitat on State lands on Maui
remains a serious problem. Declaration of the Hanawi Natural Area
Reserve secures important lands in the heart of the parrotbill's
range. Though de facto wilderness, these forests suffer from browsing
and rooting by feral pigs, from incursion by alien plants, and from
other factors leading to the degradation of forest as habitat for
native birds.
A captive breeding program is being planned by the State and U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service and may include the parrotbill among the
species propagated.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI.
02 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves:Drepaniidae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:151-262.
03 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North
American birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
04 Monro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ., Honolulu.
05 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian birds: Specimens
in museum collections. Avian History Rept. 2, Coop. Natl. Park
Res. Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
06 Shallenberger, R.J. 1984. Hawaii's birds, 3rd revised ed. Hawaii
Audubon Soc., Honolulu.
07 Peterson, R.T. 1961. A field guide to western birds, 2nd revised
ed. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
08 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighbouring islands. 3 vol. R.H. Porter, London.
09 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
10 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest birds of the Hawaiian Islands: Their dynamics,
ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
11 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Ecology, behavior, and conservation of
the Maui parrotbill (Pseudonestor xanthophrys). Unpublished report
on file at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field
Station. [Submitted to Condor for publication.]
12 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 365.
13 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
14 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Personal observation. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
15 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
16 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47., Coop. Natl. Res. Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii,
Honolulu.
17 van Riper, S.G. and C. van Riper, III. 1985. A summary of known
parasites and diseases recorded from the avifauna of the Hawaiian
Islands. Pages 298-371. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems:
Preservation and management. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, eds.
Univ. Press. Hawaii, Honolulu.
18 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russell, 1932) as the avian malaria parasite
there. Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological Topics. E.V. Canning,
ed. Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
19 Mountainspring, S. 1985. A quantitative analysis of limiting
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PARROTBILL, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101018
Date 14 MAR 96
factors of Hawaiian honeycreepers. Unpublished report on file at:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. University
Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI.
02 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 365.
03 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest birds of the Hawaiian Islands: Their dynamics,
ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
04 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Ecology, behavior, and conservation of
the Maui parrotbill (Pseudonestor xanthophrys). Unpublished report
on file at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field
Station. [Submitted to Condor for publication.]
05 Conant, S. and M.A. Stemmermann. 1980. Birds in the Kipahulu
District of Haleakala National Park. Pages 67-75. IN:
Proceedings of Third Conf. Nat. Sciences: Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park. C.W. Smith, ed. Coop. Natl. Park Res. Stud. Unit,
Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
06 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, U.K.
07 H.F. James. 1985. Personal communication. Smithsonian
Institution.
References - 2