(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - AKIAPOLAAU
OTHER COMMON NAMES - AKIAPOLAAU; 'AKIAPOLA'AU; NUKUPUU, HAWAII;NUKUPUU and HAWAI'I; AKIALOA
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - HEMIGNATHUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - MUNROI,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - HEMIGNATHUS MUNROI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Akiapolaau
Hemignathus munroi Pratt, 1979
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
'Akiapola'au are 14 to 14.6 cm in length (01). The upper
mandible is strongly decurved but the lower is straight, robust, and
only about half as long as the upper; the upper is much more slender
and delicate than the lower (01). The plumage is bright olive green
above, and bright yellow on the head and below (01). The lores are
black (01). Females are duller than males and have shorter bills (01,
02).
Nomenclatural changes in this species chiefly reflect different
perspectives on the generic boundaries of the Hawaiian honeycreepers,
and concomitant applications of the pertinent regulations under the
International Code for Zoological Nomenclature (03). The 'akiapola'au
was originally described as Heterorhynchus wilsoni by Rothschild in
1893 (04). By 1944 Heterorhynchus was merged in Hemignathus, with
Munro recognizing this species as a subspecies of the nukupu'u as
Hemignathus lucidus wilsoni (05). In 1950 Amadon recognized the
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
distinctness of the species and the name changed to Hemignathus
wilsoni (02). This was the common accepted name in virtually all
literature until Pratt revised the honeycreepers and merged several
species of Loxops with Hemignathus (03). One of the races of the
species merged into Hemignathus, the Maui 'amakihi (formerly Loxops
virens wilsoni) had been described as a distinct species with the
epithet wilsoni. This description antedated that of the 'akiapola'au.
Therefore, under the rules of nomenclature, the epithet wilsoni was
pre-occupied for the 'akiapola'au, forcing Pratt to coin a new epithet
in 1979 to yield its current accepted name, Hemignathus munroi (02,
03). Amadon standardized the common name in 1950 to 'akiapola'au (02)
also spelled akiapolaau; previous names included Hawai'i nukupu'u
(05), and more ambiguously the 'akialoa, which was also the name of
another bird on the same island (05).
The holotype is located in the American Museum of Natural History
in New York, NY (06). In the United States, 64 specimens are in the
Bernice Pauhi Bishop Museum in Honolulu, HI; 29 specimens are in the
American Museum of Natural History; 15 specimens are in the Museum of
Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA; 10 specimens
are in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.; 7
specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of
California, Berkeley, CA.; 4 specimens are in the Los Angeles County
Museum, Los Angeles, CA; 2 specimens are in the Carnegie Museum in
Pittsburgh, PA; 2 specimens are in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
collection in Hawaii National Park, HI; 2 specimens are in the Peabody
Museum of Yale University at New Haven, CT; 2 specimens are in the
University of California collection at Los Angeles, CA; 1 specimen is
in the Academy of Natural Sciences collection at Philadelphia, PA; and
1 specimen is in the Cornell University Museum in Ithada, NY (06).
Illustrations of the species may be found in "Hawaiian birdlife"
by Berger (01), "The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae)" by
Amadon (02), "A field guide to western birds" by Peterson (07),
"Hawaii's birds" by Shallenberger (08), "Birds of Hawaii" by Munro
(05), "The avifauna of Laysan and the neighbouring islands" by Baron
Rothschild (04), "Aves Hawaiienses: the birds of the Sandwich Islands"
by Wilson and Evans (09), and "Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian
Islands: Their dynamics, ecology, and conservation" by Scott, et al.
(10).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The 'akiapola'au (Hemignathus munroi) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species (Hemignathus wilsoni) in the IUCN Red Data Book,
1977. This species is also listed by the Convention on Nature
Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The 'akiapola'au is an insectivore, specialized for hewing and
probing insects from tree bark, especially from the valuable timber
tree, koa. It is one of the rare birds sought on Hawai'i by bird
watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
69/03/08:34 FR 05034/05035 - Republished list
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed relisting
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final ruling on previous list, Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
'Akiapola'au occur from 1,100 to 2,900 m elevation, with highest
densities occurring at 1,300-2,000 m (10). They occur in mesic to wet
'ohi'a, koa-'ohi'a, and koa-mamane forests, and in dry mamane and
mamane-naio forests; they are most common in mesic koa forests and
woodlands (10). They may also occur in the corridor of open pasture
with scattered trees on the northeast slope of Mauna Kea below
Kanakaleonui.
Only one nest has been described in the literature (01). This
nest was built in a lateral fork of an 'ohi'a tree about 12 m above
ground (01).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
So far as known, the 'akiapola'au feeds entirely on insects,
particularly timber-boring larvae, and on spiders and other
invertebrates gleaned and probed from foliage and bark surfaces (10,
13).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Nothing is known of the home range or of territoriality.
PERIODICITY:
The 'akiapola'au is a diurnal bird (14). Nothing is known of the
seasonal variation in its habits.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The 'akiapola'au is non-migratory (01).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The 'akiapola'au requires native forest or woodland vegetation
for cover and shelter. They occur in mesic to wet 'ohi'a, koa-'ohi'a,
and koa-mamane forests, and in dry mamane and mamane-naio forests;
they are most common in mesic koa forests and woodlands (10).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Only one nest has been described in the literature (01). This
nest was built in a lateral fork of an 'ohi'a tree about 12 m above
ground (01).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Nothing is known about the reproductive characteristics of this
species.
PARENTAL CARE:
Nothing is known about the patterns of parental care.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The current population is estimated to be about 1,500 birds
(10). The population is thought to be currently limited by (a) avian
disease, which appears to be responsible for 70% of apparently
suitable habitat being unoccupied (12); (b) habitat degradation due to
feral ungulates and domestic cattle - activities of the feral pig
appear to reduce the population density by 36% (10,12); (c)
competition for food resources from introduced birds - the Japanese
white-eye (Z. japonicus) appears to be responsible for a 25 percent
reduction in density (10,12); (d) reduction in habitat quality because
of exotic plant invasion, particularly banana poka (Passiflora
mollissima) (10); and (e) predation from mongooses (Herpestes
auropunctatus), black rats (Rattus rattus), Polynesian rats (R.
exulans), and feral cats (Felis catus) (10,15).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Occurrence of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
(Poxvirus avium) would probably preclude the presence of 'akiapola'au
in an area because of its suspected susceptibility and low resistance
to these diseases (10,16,17,18). The obligate vector for malaria and
facultative vector for pox in these areas is the mosquito, Culex
quinquefasciatus (19). The Japanese white-eye is an introduced bird
and a source of competition to the 'akiapola'au (See Population
Biology above).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Invertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Habitat loss and disease are the primary factors for the present
status of this species (10). Habitat loss began with burning and
clearing activities of the Polynesian colonists circa 400 AD (10,11).
It continued in the 19th century through koa harvest, cattle grazing,
and feral ungulate damage (10). Approximately 75% of the original
range has been lost through conversion to exotic vegetation (12).
Goats impacted upper elevation portions of the range, but their impact
is currently limited, however, feral mouflon have a major impact on
regeneration of the mamane-naio ecosystem on Mauna Kea occupied by one
subpopulation (10). Pigs probably first significantly penetrated the
range after introduction of the European boar; adverse habitat
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
modification by pigs depresses population levels and leads to severe
erosion (10,12).
The other primary reason for the present status is disease and
parasites. Based on the distribution of 'akiapola'au and that of
mosquitoes, the distribution of the 'akiapola'au appears to be limited
by avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and pox (Poxvirus avium) (10).
An estimated 70% of the available habitat appears to be unoccupied due
to the presence of disease vectors (12). Competition for food from
the introduced Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) and predation
from introduced mammalian predators [e.g., mongoose (Herpestes
auropunctatus), rats (Rattus spp.), and feral cats (Felis catus)] may
also be responsible for limiting the population.
Future threats are difficult to envision, but might possibly
include wildfire, excessive feral ungulate damage, and imported plant
pests and disease vectors or parasites (10).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawai'i Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 76 pp.
The 'akiapola'au still occupies much of its former range at
high elevations on the windward half of the island of Hawai'i, but is
missing from former habitat in the lowlands and most of the Kona and
all of the Kohala Districts. Nevertheless, this range is patchy,
roughly corresponding with the distribution of its preferred habitat,
forests with koa and mamane trees as major components. The Hawaii
Forest Bird Recovery Plan proposes that the species can be down-listed
to threatened status when it occupies a minimum of 90% of its existing
habitat and when its habitat and population are determined to be
stable.
The Recovery Plan emphasizes protection of habitat by:
1) Securing the habitat and/or favorably influencing land management
practices (e.g., managing for koa, cattle, and natural areas,
which may involve restricting timber harvesting, controlling
agricultural practices, and controlling development).
2) Controlling mammalian predators.
3) Reducing mosquito breeding sites.
4) Controlling exotic plants, such as banana poka.
5) Restoring native forests in pastures. And
6) Reducing/eliminating feral and domestic ungulate populations.
The plan lists all lands encompassing essential habitat. The plan
also recommends:
1) Further surveys and studies of 'akiapola'au.
2) Reducing possibilities for introduction of new avian parasites
and disease.
3) Developing a public relations program. And
4) Developing avicultural procedures for rearing endangered birds,
should it become necessary to breed the species in captivity.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
Recovery actions ongoing or completed include:
1) Removal of feral sheep from the xeric forests of Mauna Kea,
2) Ongoing acquisition of forest lands for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge.
3) Ongoing removal of feral ungulates from Hawai'i Volcanoes National
Park.
4) Declaration of three Natural Area Reserves on State lands:
Kipahoehoe, Laupahoehoe, and Pu'u Maka'ala. And
5) Ongoing planning and implementation of a program for captive
breeding of endangered birds by the State, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, and several mainland zoos.
Much still needs to be done, particularly the securing of prime
habitat in the Kilauea Forest Reserve and on adjacent Keauhou Ranch
lands.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1982. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. Univ. Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves:Drepaniidae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:151-262.
03 Pratt, H.D., Jr. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State
University, Baton Rouge.
04 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
05 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
06 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian History Report 2, Coop. Nat. Park. Res.
Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
07 Peterson, R.T. 1961. A field guide to western birds, 2nd rev. ed.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
08 Shallenberger, R. 1984. Hawaii's birds, 3rd rev. ed. Hawaii
Audubon Soc., Honolulu.
09 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
10 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
11 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
12 Mountainspring, S. 1985. A quantitative analysis of limiting
factors of Hawaiian honeycreepers. Unpublished report on file at:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
13 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
14 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Personal observations. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
15 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
16 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
17 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47. Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. Hawaii,
Honolulu.
18 van Riper, S.G. and C. van Riper, III. 1985. A summary of known
parasites and diseases recorded from the avifauna of the Hawaiian
Islands. Pages 298-371. IN: Hawaii's Terrestrial Ecosystems:
Preservation and management. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, eds.
Univ. Press Hawaii, Honolulu.
19 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKIAPOLAAU
Species Id ESIS101020
Date 14 MAR 96
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. Univ. Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
03 Mountainspring, S. 1985. Personal observations. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Mauna Loa Field Station.
04 Duvall, F.P., II. 1985. Personal communication. State of Hawaii
Department of Land and Natural Resources.
05 van Riper, C., III. 1973. Island of Hawaii bird distribution and
abundance. 'Elepaio 34:1-3.
06 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
References - 2