(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - 'O'O, KAUAI
OTHER COMMON NAMES - 'O'O, KAUAI;'O'O, KAUA'I; 'O'O 'A'A; OO, KAUAI; OO AA; HONEYEATER; BEE-EATER and YELLOW-TUFTED
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - MELIPHAGIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MOHO,
SPECIES AND SSP - BRACCATUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - MOHO BRACCATUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Kauai 'O'o
Moho braccatus Cassin, 1855
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Meliphagidae
Adult Male: Head above black with a faint gloss, the feathers
ashy grey along the shaft, except at the tip, and a few bristly
feathers right and left on the forehead ashy white. Some small
whitish bristly feathers over the eye like the remains of a
superciliary stipe; lores deep black, without any gloss. Feathers of
the throat and fore-neck black, with a whitish bar before the tip.
Feathers of the back and abdomen dark smoky brown, with narrow greyish
shaft-lines, those of the vent and under tail-coverts rufous brown;
rump and upper tail-coverts uniform brown. Wings and tail-feathers
uniform black, the former inwardly pure white. Axilliary tufts not
conspicuously developed, and a brown color; tibiae golden yellow.
Iris yellowish white. Bill and feet black with a greyish tinge.
Soles pale yellow. In young birds the iris is more greyish. Total
length about 7.5 to 8.5 inches, wing 3.8 to 4.1 inches, tail 3.5 to 4
inches, culmen 1.05 to 1.16 inches, and tarsus 1.05 to 1.14 inches.
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
Adult Female: Entirely similar to the male in color (the
difference of throat color mentioned in Wilson (02) does not hold
well), but a little smaller. Young birds differ from the adults in
having the shaft-lines of the feathers of the back and abdomen less
developed and almost imperceptible, in having the abdomen greyish
olive, and the tibiae blackish instead of yellow.
Sincock found the first known nest of any of the Hawaiian 'o'o
on May 31, 1971 and about 10 days later described one of the nestlings
as follows:
About one-third of the 16 mm primaries and secondaries
free of the sheath. There were short gray pin feathers on
the capital area and much of the head was naked. Most of the
maxilla black except for the tip and around the nostrils,
which were yellow; the wide edges of both mandibles were
buffy yellow. Down on the head and legs was light to medium
gray. Down on the neck, breast and along the sides was
cinnamon, but with gray near the skin. The eyes were
slightly open. Total length of nestling 104 mm, length of
bill 23 mm, width of bill 28 mm, culmen from feather tract
16 mm, nostril length 5 mm, nostril width 2.5 mm, eye length
4 mm, mid-claw 6 mm, head from back to tip of bill 44 mm,
width of apterium area on belly 20 mm.
Young were estimated to be about 10 days old (03,04).
The Kaua'i 'o'o (Moho braccatus) belongs to the family
Meliphagidae, owing to the brush-like tongue (Gadow in 02).
Wilson (02) adopted Cabanis's name Acrulocercus. This was done under
the pretext that moho was the common name for the rail (Pennula
ecaudata) and o-o was the common name for Moho nobilis. Therefore,
he reasoned that Lesson's generic name Moho could not be used (01).
Rothschild (01), as nearly all ornithologists have done, used Moho.
The synonymy (in 01) for the Kaua'i 'o'o (Moho braccatus) includes
Merops faciculatus, Latham (1790), Yellow-tufted Bee-eater, Latham
(1801), Certhia pacifica, Peale (1848), Mohoa faciculata Reichenbach
(1853), Mohoa braccata, Cassin 1855 (most authors spell the name Moho,
not Mohoa); Acrulocercus braccatus Wilson and Evans (1890). Gadow (in
the Catalougue of Birds in the British Museum, IX, p.284 (not seen)),
included M. braccatus in the synonyms of M. nobilis Meyer (1892) (01).
Wilson (02) lists Moho nobilis, Gadow (1884) as a synonymn for Moho
braccatus. Cassin first defined it as Mohoa braccata from a single
specimen erroneously ascribed to Certhia pacifica (01).
One hundred specimens of Kaua'i 'o'o or 'o'o 'a'a, were found to
be distributed in museum collections as follows: American Museum of
Natural History, New York -31; Auckland Institute and Museum,
Auckland -1; Bernice P. Bishop Museum -21, including 1 mtd.; British
Museum of Natural History, London -10; Cambridge University Museum of
Zoology, Cambridge -5, including 1 pickled; Carnegie Museum -2; Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. -3; Museum
National D'Histoire Naturelle, Paris -3; National Museum of Natural
History, Washington, D.C. -7, including 2 alcoholic; National Museum
of New Zealand -1; Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden -3,
including 1 skeleton; Royal Ontario Museum -10; Senckenberg Museum,
Frankfurt -1; Staatliches Museum Fur Tierkunde, Dresden -1; University
of Michigan -1; Washington State University -1 (05).
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
Taxonomy - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Kaua'i 'o'o (Moho braccatus) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species by IUCN, 1977.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore, flower pollinator, and vector of seed dispersal. It is
among the many rare birds sought on Kaua'i by bird watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed relisting
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule on previous list, Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Kaua'i 'o'o formerly used a wide variety of wet, mesic, and
dry forest habitats in all, or most, of the Kaua'i forest (01,02,06,
07). Possibly only one or two Kaua'i 'o'o survive in a remote, fairly
pristine portion of the Alaka'i Swamp. It is also possible that its
present range near Mt. Wai'ale'ale, the wettest spot in the world,
never was optimum habitat for this bird, but represents a remnant
population as far removed as possible from decimating factors. The
habitat associations discussed here apply only to its present known
and possible range on Kaua'i (03).
On Kaua'i it now occurs only in near-temperate to subtropic wet
to mesic 'ohi'a rainforest in the southeastern, more inaccessible,
portions of the Alaka'i Swamp Plateau at an elevation of about 1260 m.
The old to mature growth of the 'ohi'a forest has many standing snags
that are frequently used by the 'o'o. The first three nests to be
discovered were all found in 'ohi'a tree cavities (03). The wet
'ohi'a forest averages about 12 meters in height, and there is an
understory of lapalapa (Cheirodendron spp.) including the dwarf
variety of 'ohi'a tree that occupies the scattered bogs the 'ohi'a
trees range from 0.9 to 27.4 m, the latter being the tallest 'ohi'a
trees Sincock recorded on Kaua'i (03,10). There are several small
bogs scattered in this southeastern section of the Alaka'i Swamp with
mosses, lichens, grasses, fly-catcher plants, violets, sedges, etc.
Numerous meandering streams dissect the area so that except for major
ridges which occasionally broaden into relatively flat areas the land
is a maze of narrow knife-like ridges, cliffs (palis), ledges, and
steep inclines to adjoining streams. The soils resemble clay-loams
with much organic detritus, and occasional clay lenses exposed by
weather, erosion, and the rooting of pigs (03). The soils in the
limited area now occupied by the Kaua'i 'o'o are primarily Histosols
(50), overlying the lavas of the Kola volcanic series, surrounded by
the lavas of the Olokele formation (51,52). Temperatures normally
range from about 2 to 22 degrees C, with extremes of -1 to 27+
degrees C, annually. Usually October to December and late February to
mid-April are the wettest periods, with the rainfall rarely reaching
about 102 cm in one day, but usually averaging 508 or more centimeters
annually (50).
The area appears to be the most pristine on the island. There is
some pig damage to the habitat, which is usually followed by
pioneering Cladium sp., other sedges and grasses. Elsewhere in the
Habitat Associations - 1 possible range of the 'o'o in the upper plateau of the Alaka'i Swamp
the soils are clay-loams classified as Ultisols, Oxisols and mixed
types (50) overlying the lavas of the Olokele formation (51,52). Two
miles to the southeast of the present range of the 'o'o is Mt.
Waialeale where the rainfall averages 1230 cm annually, and has
exceeded 1465 cm in one year. The upper plateau in the Alaka'i Swamp
slopes from the Wainiha Pali (cliff) at about 1280 m elevation to the
Waimea Canyon at about 1040 m; the forest becomes more mesic on the
west and the crest of the Waimea Canyon is fringed with koa forest.
In this drier mesic forest rainfall averages only about 127 cm
annually and there are more invading exotic plants, birds, and goats.
The contiguous forest of the mountain plateau includes 5,908 ha west
of the Alaka'i Swamp, 3,035 ha in the northern Alaka'i Swamp, 3,310 ha
in the southeast section from Koaie Stream to Mt. Waialeale, and
1,344 ha in the southwestern section near Waiale cabin and
Koholuamano.
From Mt. Waialeale at 1569 m (5148 ft) elevation near the center
of the island two knife like ridges protrude northwest and north.
Laau Ridge is about 1224 m (4061 ft) elevation and it is separated
from the upper plateau of the Alaka'i Swamp by the deep gorge of the
Namolokama Mountain at 1348 m (4421 ft) elevation by the Lumahai
River. Both of these mountains are virtually inaccessible except by
helicopter. There is considerable pig damage to the 'ohi'a forest.
Sincock, in May 1968, probably conducted the only bird censuses ever
made in these areas. He heard a small Kaua'i thrush, or puaiohi, on
Laau Ridge, and possible saw a Kaua'i 'o'o one late afternoon in the
fog, but was unable to verify it. The combined area of both ridges is
258.3 ha and the 'ohi'a canopy ranges from 7.6 to 12.2 m on Laau
Ridge, averaging 10.3 m; and 0.2 to 6.1 m, averaging 4.8 m on
Namolokama Mt. Rainfall on Namolokama probably averages about the
same as the wetter portions of the Alaka'i Swamp. The 'ohi'a canopy
on Namolokama is fairly open, and there are a succession of bogs.
Detailed information may be found in the Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan (10).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Lianas-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Molluscs
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Snags: Unknown
G Tree Cavities: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The Kaua'i 'o'o appears to be much more insectivorous than its
congeners, which may all be extinct. It searches the larger 'ohi'a
tree (Metrosideros collina) trunks for insects. The food consists of
spiders, native cockroaches, the prognathogryllid crickets, and the
smaller ones of the genus Paratrigonidium, as well as some beetles and
the larvae of these insects. It feeds on the ubiquitous geometrid
caterpillars as well as on some wood-eating species, and unlike the
extinct Hawai'i bird, is fond of the koa trees, frequenting these in
some localities. It retains, to a considerable extent, a fondness for
the nectar of flowers, whether those of the 'ohi'a, the Lobeliaceae,
or the banana. The affection of the Kaua'i 'o'o for the lobelias is
often betrayed by the characteristic pollen sticking to its forehead,
even when it is not seen in the act of visiting these flowers (07).
Munro (06) repeats the above list of foods adding only millipedes to
the list of principal foods, and that they also eat the fleshy flower
bracts of the ieie vine. In mid-summer 1960 Kaua'i 'o'o were seen
foraging in both lapalapa (Cheirodendron kauaiense) and 'ohi'a trees
and one was seen eating lapalapa berries. The contents of the stomach
and gizzard of one bird included the remains of one large and two or
more small spiders; assorted parts of ten or more insects, including
beetles and a hemipteran; remains of at least one large insect larva;
and three small snails (09).
Sincock annually observed the Kaua'i 'o'o from 1971 through 1984,
and found active nests in 1971, 1972, and 1973. In late May and early
June the adults spent most of their feeding efforts obtaining moths,
spiders, insect larvae obtained from moss-covered trees, millipedes,
and on one occasion a centipede was taken to the nest. Sincock saw a
Kaua'i 'o'o fledge, departing its nest for the first time at about
1130 hrs on May 24, 1973. The new fledgling sat quietly, 3 m above
the ground, in the lower branches of a lapalapa tree about 6 m away
from the 'ohi'a tree that housed the nesting cavity. It was eagerly
awaiting the arrival of both parents as they arrived every half minute
or so with a moth or spider to feed the youngster. During the periods
when there were young in the nests in 1971, 1972, and 1973 both
parents were continually searching for insects and arthropods,
particularly in the moss-covered 'ohi'a tree trunks, and carrying
their prey into the nest cavity every few minutes. Often as one adult
entered the cavity the other adult would emerge. When there was no
active nesting the principal food is the nectar of the 'ohi'a.
Despite the abundance of lapalapa berries during several months of the
year, and this bird's frequent use of the trees for perching and
sleeping, Sincock never observed the 'o'o feeding on the berries. In
May 1971 two 'o'o approached within 3 to 4 m of an observer and one
bird obtained nectar of a Broussasia flower. Frequently they would
search for insects and feed on 'ohi'a nectar, apparently undisturbed
by one human's close presence (03,53).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
All observations of Kaua'i 'o'o considered valid since 1911
indicate a total range of only 4.5 square miles, 3 miles long and 1.5
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
miles wide, apparently containing only two small remnant populations.
The northern most population apparently began to die out in the
mid-1960's, and the southern one appears to be dying out since the
mid-1970's; it is now possibly down to one or two birds.
The Kaua'i 'o'o is territorial. During the May-June nesting
season both sexes defend an area about 300 yds across, aggressively
chasing other birds out. Conspecifics as well as other species [e.g.,
apapane (Himatione sanguinea), amakihi (Loxops viren) and Kaua'i
creeper (Loxops maculata)] were chased. The persistent presence of
other birds in an area occupied by 'o'o indicates a lack of nesting.
After fledging in 1971, 1972, and 1973 (the only 3 years of known
active nests) 'o'o were not found in the area in mid-summer, but could
be found again in the fall. They probably stayed within 1 square mile
or less from the nest site. During the May-June nesting season they
frequently gave their alarm call "beep-beep," sounding like the
roadrunner of the cartoons. Also during May-June they started their
melodious, flute-like duet calling a few minutes before 0600 hrs; this
call can be heard for 1/4 mile, and was given about a dozen times
until they settled down about 1030 hrs, generally remaining quiet
until late afternoon, when a few calls were heard from about 1600 hrs
to 1830 hrs. Usually when clouds passed by they were quiet, but
called when sunlight broke through. During non-breeding periods they
were somewhat social and did not always chase other birds feeding in
the area or even the same tree (03).
PERIODICITY:
The Kaua'i 'o'o is diurnal. When they have nestlings most of
their time is spent in pursuit of insects, insect larvae (particularly
moths), spiders, and millipedes; at other times they feed mostly on
nectar of 'ohi'a flowers. From about 1030 until 1500 hrs they often
sit quietly in a lapalapa tree, preening and sleeping but will become
aggressive to chase out intruding birds, including other 'o'o (03).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Kaua'i 'o'o is non-migratory. There is some limited movement
out of the 15 to 20 acre area they use during the nesting season,
probably in response to insect and nectar abundance, but it is
doubtful that it involves more than one mile (03).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Kaua'i 'o'o once occurred to the outer limits of the forest,
but now occurs in the most remote and pristine part of the Alaka'i
Swamp, where the trees average about 12.4 meters in height, with some
old trees reaching 27 meters in height. They nest in cavities in
mature 'ohi'a trees; the cavities of the only three trees where nests
were found varied from the largest, being about one foot across on the
inside, to a small area, only large enough for the nest to be
contained behind a thin facade of decaying wood with an entrance above
and below. The triangular shaped opening of the larger nest cavity
was barely large enough to squeeze one's hand through. The dominant
vegetation at all three sites has been 'ohi'a trees, and a substory of
lapalapa trees; all near mountain streams. The forest canopy is
fairly dense - about 50 to 75 percent canopy closure. The absolute
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
minimum area used by a pair of 'o'o during the nesting period is about
6 to 8 ha but this is in a large contiguous forest and, consequently,
there would be an insect food supply moving through this limited
territory. It is doubtful that any such isolated area of 6 ha could
supply their entire annual needs (03).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Sincock found the first known nest of the Kaua'i 'o'o deep in the
southeastern section of the Alaka'i Swamp 10.7 m up a 22.9 m dying
'ohi'a tree in a cavity about 30 cm across on the inside. The nest
was elliptical in shape, measuring 170 mm long and 130 mm wide on the
outside. The inside of the cup was 110 mm by 65 mm. The thickness of
the cup lip varied from 10 to 45 mm; it was about 35 mm deep. The
nest was composed of rootlets of grasses, ferns, some of which were
Adenophorus, stems of the liverwort Herberta, small bits of mosses, a
few small twigs of pukiawe (Styphelix tameiameiae), and fine rootlets
of 'ohi'a. The second cavity nest, used in 1972 and 1973, was about
130 m from the first, and 7 m (24 ft) up a 13.7 m (45 ft) dying 'ohi'a
tree with a 38 cm DBH. The third nesting cavity was in a dying 19.3 m
(60 ft) 'ohi'a tree about 7 m (24 ft) above the ground; the DBH was 51
cm (20 inches). The openings in all three trees faced to the west,
providing some protection from the prevailing NE trade winds. In 1984
two old nests were found one atop of the other in the second location;
these are to be analyzed by Jim Jacobi, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Mauna Loa Field Station. The third site was left
undisturbed, since it was still attended by a single 'o'o in
1981-1984. Ohia, lapalapa and dense native shrubs are the common
vegetation (03).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The breeding season of all three active nests has been in late
May through early June. Sincock saw the first 'o'o fledge on May 24,
1973. The nest found on June 10, 1971 contained 2 nestlings, about 10
days old. Other nests were not checked because of the extreme
endangerment of the few 'o'o. Sincock believes all of his
observations from 1971 through 1975 of nesting adults were of one
pair. But from 1976 through May 1978 the few observations did not
seem to involve a pair; calling was single rather than duet, and a few
other indicators suggest something happened to one of the birds in
1976. There is probably only one reproductive period annually, but
renesting might be attempted in the event of failure in the first
attempt. The other factors are unknown. Both adults feed the
nestlings every few minutes, and about every 30 seconds the new
fledgling was fed moths or spiders by both adults, during the short
time it was observed (less than half an hour) (03,04).
PARENTAL CARE:
Incubation periods are unknown, but probably last 2 to 3 weeks.
Length of time to independence is unknown. Both the male and female
defend the territory and guard the nest. The young are altricial (see
description of nestling in N-TAXONOMY). On July 22, 1971 a young 'o'o
was seen apparently independent of its parents, near the site where
the nest was found in May.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Food supply and cover appear adequate, predation and disease may
be the chief limiting factors, competition from exotics does not
appear to be a major factor now, however, during the "irruptive
period" following the importation of the cavity nesting mynah bird in
1865, when the mynah invaded the high forests of Kaua'i, there might
have been severe displacement of the 'o'o. Since then the mynah is no
longer found in the high, undisturbed 'ohi'a forest (03). Atkinson
also makes the same point about the black rat's potentially greater
adverse effects during its "irruptive period" following introduction
than its effects in later years after major declines in bird
populations already occurred (41). Rates of mortality, increase,
survival, turnover, and longevity are unknown. Recovery potential for
the possibly one, two or a few more Kaua'i 'o'o are now almost nil
(03). The objective for population density under management for all
endangered forest birds on Kaua'i (six species) was to increase their
population to at least 1,000 (thereby indicating it could be done) and
downlist them (03,10).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
In some limited areas (e.g., around Kokee) the increase in feral
cats may have been a factor in the decline of the 'o'o, but not
throughout the upper elevation rainforest which is unfavorable for
cats (Felis catus). However, the black rat (Rattus rattus) was
trapped on even the most remote mountain tops and may be a continuing
predator on all forest birds (03,41). Mynah birds (Acridotheres
tristis tristis) were introduced in 1865 and invaded the forests, but
later withdrew; during the "irruptive period" this cavity nester may
have competed with the cavity nesting 'o'o. Introduced passerine and
game birds may contribute to the problem of avian pox and avian
malaria. The mosquito was introduced to Hawai'i in 1826 and thereby
provided the vector for transmission of disease (e.g, avian malaria)
(03,04,36).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Hiking/Camping
Existing Hiking/Camping
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The Kaua'i 'o'o was common and widely distributed over all the
Kaua'i forests in 1891 (01,02,06,07). It had been collected or
recorded in six of the eleven U.S. Geological Survey Quadrangles of
the island, and there were only 13 recorded observations this century
until the 1960's (08). It could not be found by Munro on four visits
to the Kaua'i forests between 1928 and 1936 (06). The increase in
observations since Richardson and Bowles (09) found a small remnant
nucleus population reflects only an increased effort and awareness of
where to look, rather than any significant increase in the population.
It is now one of the the rarest birds in the world, and near
extinction (10,11).
The reasons for the drastic decline in the population of Kaua'i
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
'o'o will never be fully determined, but the causes of decline of
Hawaiian forest birds are believed to be:
1) Habitat destruction and degradation, both past and present, by
man (e.g., forest clearing/alteration, agricultural development,
etc.), introduced herbivores and plants which led to vegetative
composition changes (01,02,03,04,06,07,09,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,
19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40).
2) Predation by introduced predators such as black rats, cats, and
the common mynah (01,04,06,07,09,10,15,25,30,31,32,33,36,41).
3) Avian disease, for example pox and malaria (04,06,07,09,10,11,12,
13,15,25,30,31,32,40,42,43,44,45).
4) Competition from introduced birds (01,04,07,09,10,12,25,30,31,32,
33,36,40,46,47,48,49).
5) Over-specialization, lack of ability to adjust, and
impoverishment of the gene pool (07,12,10,31,46,47).
6) Hunting and collecting (this is not believed to be a factor
involved in the decline of the Kaua'i 'o'o) (04,07,12,15,25).
Sincock believes predation and disease were the most likely
causes of decline and continued suppression of the population (03).
Black rats are ubiquitous throughout the mountains, and feral cats are
abundant in some mesic areas. Pox-type lesions are common on exotic
birds in the lowlands and they may serve to carry disease into the
mountain forests (03,10). Hiking and camping in, and helicopter
flights directly over, the nesting area may have negatively influenced
the nesting of the 'o'o (03). For several years Sincock (03) observed
a breeding pair of 'o'o and noted that during a period of increased
hiking in the area the pair discontinued nesting.
Potential threats to the Kaua'i 'o'o and other Kaua'i birds in
the future include proposed dams for hydroelectric power and
irrigation storage, increased human use of present habitat, conditions
favoring increase of avian vectors (e.g., mosquitos) of avian disease,
introduction of additional predators (e.g., snakes that eat birds),
further introductions of, or escape of, caged birds capable of living
in the rainforests, thereby increasing competition and
disease-parasite problems, further introductions and spread of exotic
plants, further introductions and failure to control ungulates,
reforestation projects that destroy forests, and continued reluctance
and delay in engaging in a captive propagation program and sperm bank
program (03,10).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
Now that the Kaua'i 'o'o population appears to be only a single,
free-flying bird, any proposed recovery measures would be desperate
if not futile. A first and critical step would be to immediately
locate additional Kaua'i 'o'o, if any still exist. Captive
propagation and, possibly, live tissue or sperm storage have been
suggested as the only actions that offer any promise of preventing the
species' imminent extinction. Compared with other, more specialized
endangered birds, the Kaua'i 'o'o, with its eclectic feeding habits
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
and preference for nesting in tree cavities, might respond favorably
in captivity and reproduce. Ultimately, captive reared birds would be
released into suitable habitat. The advantage of captive breeding
over leaving the 'o'o in the wild would be to isolate the birds from
disease and nest predation, two factors believed to be responsible for
the species' decline. Captive breeding would buy time to implement a
recovery program aimed at improving essential habitat on Kaua'i,
specifically:
1) controlling predators (rats), especially around nest sites,
2) halting destruction of habitat by feral ungulates,
3) preventing the spread of alien plants into essential habitat,
and,
4) reducing the density of disease vectors in essential habitat,
if ways can be found to do so.
Lesser or possible adverse effects caused by disturbance by people and
aircraft, development, and competition with alien birds must also be
reduced. Acquiring title or management rights to certain lands has
been recommended. Public education was recommended to build support
for recovery programs. The Kaua'i 'o'o is passing into the final
moments of its existence. Immediate action is needed to prevent its
extinction.
No recovery actions are being taken, apart from population
monitoring. A captive breeding program is being planned by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, State of Hawai'i, and several mainland
Zoos.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
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03 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kaua'i
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04 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. University Press of
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05 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
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06 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
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'o'o, and kioea. Avian History Report 7A & 7B. Coop. Natl. Park.
Res. Studies Unit. Univ. Hawai'i, Honolulu.
09 Richardson, F. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
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10 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
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12 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreeper (Aves, Drepaniidae).
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14 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birds. Wilson Bull. 84(2):212-222.
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21 Haley, D. 1975. The last oo. Defenders 50(6):476-479.
22 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
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Date 14 MAR 96
23 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
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24 Judd, C.S. 1927. The story of the forests of Hawaii. Paradise of
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25 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
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26 King, W.B. 1977. Red data book. Vol.2: Birds. International
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27 Kirch, P. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians on the
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28 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982a. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
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contact. Science 217:633-635.
29 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982b. Prodromus of the fossil
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30 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
31 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian birds. Audubon
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32 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
440 pp.
33 Scott, J.M., C.B. Kepler, and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Distribution
and abundance of Hawaii's endemic land birds: Conservation and
management strategies. IN: Proc. of Symposium June 5-6, 1984 at
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, eds.
Coop. Natl. Park Res. Studies, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu.
34 Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawaii's native
biota. Pages 180-243. IN: Hawaii's Terrestrial Ecosystems,
Preservation and Management. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott. Proc. of
Symp., June 5-6, 1984. Univ. Hawai'i, Honolulu.
35 Tinker, S.W. 1938. Animals of Hawaii. Nippi Jiji Pub. Co., Ltd.,
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36 Warner, R.E. 1961. Hawaii's birds - birth and death of an island
biota. Pacif. Discov. 14(5):6-14.
37 Warshauer, F.R. 1980. An overview of the feral pig problem in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Pages 476-480. IN: Proceedings
of the Second Conf. on Sci. Res. in the National Parks. Vol. 8.
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38 Warshauer, F.R., J.D. Jacobi, A.M. La Rosa, J.M. Scott, and C.W.
Smith. 1983. The distribution, impact and potential management of
the introduced vine Passiflora mollissima (Passifloraceae) in
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39 Wenkam, R. 1967. Kauai and the park country of Hawaii. Sierra
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40 Yates, S. 1984. On the cutting edge of extinction. Audubon
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41 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
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Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
42 Ali Navab, H. 1970. Epizootilogical survey of avian malaria in
the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Hawai'i. 64 pp.
43 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
44 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
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45 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
46 Henshaw, H.W. 1910. [Letter in report of the Board of
Commissioners or Agriculture and Forestry of the territory of
Hawaii.] Pages 61-64. IN: Report of the Committee on the
introduction of birds into the Hawaiian Islands, Hawaiian Gazette
Co., Ltd.
47 Henshaw, H.W. 1901. Introduction of foreign birds into the
Hawaiian Islands with notes on some of the introduced species. The
Hawaiian Annual 27:132-142. T.G. Thrum Publ., Honolulu.
48 Moulton, M.P. and S.L. Pimm. 1983. The introduced Hawaiian
avifauna: biogeographic evidence from competition. Am. Nat.
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49 Mountainspring, S. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Interspecific
competition among Hawaiian forest birds. Ecol. Monogr.
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50 Armstrong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. of Hawai'i.
51 Macdonald, G.A., D.A. Davis, and D.C. Cox. 1960. Geology and
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52 Stearns, H.T. 1966. Geology of the State of Hawaii. Pacific
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53 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serivce. 1976. Draft: Kauai Forest Birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station, Retired. USFWS, Endangered Species Program
1967-1984. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
02 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
03 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
04 Munro, G.C. 1944. Comments on "Birds of Hawaii" continued.
'Elepaio 5(5):31-32.
05 Banko, W.E. 1981. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. I.
Population histories-species accounts, forest birds: 'Elepaio,
'o'o, and kioea. Avian History Report 7A & 7B. Coop. Natl. Park.
Res. Studies Unit. Univ. Hawai'i, Honolulu.
06 Bryan, W.A. 1915. Natural history of Hawaii. The Hawaiian
Gazette Co., Ltd. Honolulu. 596 pp.
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'O'O, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101022
Date 14 MAR 96
07 Richardson, F. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 227.
08 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
440 pp.
09 Kepler, C. 1986. Personal communication. Biologist in Charge,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Maui Field Station.
10 Casey, Tonee. 1981. Personal observations.
11 Collins, Mark. 1986. Personal communication.
12 Hart. A.D. 1978. Hawaii's last honeyeater. National Parks and
Conservation Mag. 52(12):12-16.
13 Gagne, W. and A. Hart. 1974. Christmas bird count. 'Elepaio
34(10).
14 Conant, S., R. Shallenberger, and C. Pratt. Field notes and
photos. 'Elepaio 36(12):154.
15 Benson, B. 1973. Field trip to the Alakai. 21 June 1973.
'Elepaio 34(2):12.
16 Pyle, R. 1981. Hawaii bird observations, Aug 1979 - July 1980
(Mark Collins). 'Elepaio 40(8):72-78.
17 Wallace, R. 1973. Hawaii. Time-Life Books, Inc., Chicago, IL.
18 Starbird, E. and R. Madden. 1977. The island that's still Hawaii.
Nat. Geog. Mag. 152(5):584-612.
19 Haley, D. 1975. The last oo. Defenders 50(6):476-479.
References - 4