(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
OTHER COMMON NAMES - THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE; THRUSH, KAUA'I, LARGE; KAMAO; KAMA'O; KAMAU; OMAO, KAUAI;'OMA'O, KAUA'I; THRUSH, KAUAI; THRUSH and KAUA'I; AMAUEE; AMAUI; 'AMAUI; OMAO; 'OMA'O; OLOMAO; OLOMA'O;OLOMAU
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - MUSCICAPIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MYADESTES,
SPECIES AND SSP - MYADESTINUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - MYADESTES MYADESTINUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Large Kauai Thrush
Myadestes myadestinus (Stejneger, 1887)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Muscicapidae
The large Kaua'i thrush, now more properly called the kama'o, is
dull hair-brown above, tinged with olive, especially on the back; the
wing quills are deep brown. The under surface is light smoky gray and
"somewhat mottled in appearance", lighter on the throat and becoming
white on the belly. The bill is black; the tarsi and toes are brown,
but the ventral surface of the toes is pale yellow. The birds are
nearly 20 cm in length (01). The length is also given as 23 cm in the
flesh. The immature birds are spotted like those of Hawai'i and other
islands (02). In a general discussion of Phaeornis it was believed
probable that the young do not lose their spotted plumage for two
seasons (03).
Perkins (03) considered it in the family Turdidae, and mentions
the common name amaui, [syn., omao (or 'oma'o), olomao (or oloma'o),
kamao (or kama'o)]. The Kaua'i natives called it 'amaui, and Bloxam
in 1825 referred to the species on Hawai'i as amauee. Munro (02) uses
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
the scientific name Phaeornis obscura myadestina, and gives the common
name as Kauai (or Kaua'i) thrush, with the Hawaiian names 'amaui,
kama'o, and kamau (or kama'u). Berger spells the common name oloma'o
in (03) as olomau (05). Myadestes myadestinus may also be known as
the Kaua'i 'oma'o (or Kauai omao).
Six forms of Phaeornis from five different islands have been
described, originally as separate species - obscura (Gmelin) 1789 of
Hawai'i; lanaiensis, Wilson 1891 of Lana'i; rutha Bryan 1908 of
Moloka'i; oahensis Wilson and Evans 1899 of O'ahu; and myadestina
Stejneger 1887 and palmeri Rothschild 1893, both of Kaua'i (04).
Later they were considered subspecies or races of Phaeornis obscurus.
Amadon (06) lists the kama'o, or large Kaua'i thrush, in the
family Muscicapidae, subfamily Turdinae. He stated that the subfamily
is represented by one endemic genus, Phaeornis, apparently derived
from the American solitaires of the genus Myadestes, as Stejneger
(1889) concluded, and emphasized by naming the Kaua'i form Phaeornis
myadestina. Some authors suggested the Polynesian Turdus
poliocephalus was the ancestor of Phaeornis, but Amadon reinvestigated
the question and came to the same conclusion as Stejneger.
Wilson and Evans spell the species name differently using
Phaeornis myiadestina, and give the synonomy as follows (07):
Taenioptera obscura, Assin, U.S. Expl. Exped., Mamm. & Orn. p.155,
1859;
Phaeornis myadestina (sic), Stejneger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1887;
id. op. cit. 1889, p.383; S.B. Wilson, Ibis, 1890, p.195.;
Phaeornis myiadestina, Sclater, Ibis, 1888, p.143.
Pratt (04) reviewed the classification noting that Stejneger (08)
compared the kama'o with Townsend's solitaire (Myadestes townsendi)
stating that "were it not for different proportions of wing, tail, and
legs, the two birds could hardy be separated generically". Pratt (04)
stated other authors (Amadon (06), Ripley (09), Ames (10)) supported
a close relationship of Phaeornis to Myadestes, but E.H. Bryan (11)
inexplicably associated Phaeronis with several Old World genera far
removed from the American solitaires. Ripley (12) later changed his
opinion after seeing and hearing Phaeornis in the field, and he
thought the vocal behavior of the Hawaiian birds showed a close
relationship with the nightingale-thrushes of the genus Catharus.
Ripley (13) placed Phaeornis next to Catharus in "Peter's Check-list".
Pratt (04) proposed Phaeornis Sclater 1859 as a junior synonym of
Myadestes Swainson 1838.
The 1983 AOU Checklist (14) lists only Phaeornis obscurus, but
notes that some authors merge in Myadestes. However, the 35th
supplement (15) to the AOU Checklist consists of changes adopted by
the Committee on Classification and Nomenclature as of 1 March 1985
accepted Pratt's (04) recommendation and merged Phaeornis in
Myadestes, changed Myadestes obscurus to M. occidentalis, changed
Phaeornis obscurus to Myadestes obscurus and split into four
biological species: Myadestes myadestinus (Stejneger), kama'o; M.
oahensis (Wilson and Evans), 'amaui; M. lanaiensis (Wilson), oloma'o;
and M. obscurus (Gmelin), 'oma'o.
The original Federal Register common name and scientific name
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
were large Kaua'i thrush and Phaeornis obscurus myadestina,
respectively.
Forty-seven specimens are distributed in museum collections as
follows: American Museum of Natural History, New York 18; Auckland
Institute and Museum, Auckland 1; Academy of Natural Science,
Philadelphia 1; British Museum of Natural History, London 8; Cambridge
University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge 4; Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. 1; Museum National
D'Histoire Naturelle, Paris 4; National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, D.C. 4, including type specimen; Rijksmuseum Van
Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden 2; Staatliches Museum Fur Tierkunde,
Dresden 1; University of California, Los Angeles 2; Washington State
Museum, University of Washington Seattle 1 (16).
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The large Kaua'i thrush, or kama'o, (Myadestes myadestinus) has
been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16
U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status wherever
found including the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13). The Hawaiian thrush
(Phaeornis obscurus) is listed in the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
The large Kaua'i thrush (Myadestes myadestinus) should be considered
protected under this act since it was previously listed as a
subspecies of P. obscurus and only recently was changed in the AOU
checklist to M. myadestinus.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species by IUCN, 1977 (Phaeornis obscurus myadestina).
This species is also listed by the Convention on Nature Protection
and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore and vector of seed dispersal. It is among the many rare
birds sought on Kaua'i by bird watchers.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
86/02/06:51 FR 04658/ - Notice of document avail., w/ name change
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Forested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
In its former range, which at the turn of the century
apparently included all the forests of Kaua'i, the kama'o survived in
a wide range of environmental conditions with rainfall varying from
about 1 m to over 15 m per year. Minimum temperatures in that habitat
would range from 2 to 11 degrees C, and maximum temperatures from
about 27 to 35 degrees C. The kama'o, at one time, existed in much
disturbed forest already occupied by exotic plants, as indicated by
the statements that the kama'o extended to the outer limits of the
forest near sea level, not only in the densest parts of the forest but
also in the more open woods (02,03), and also as indicated from field
notes of collections made in dense lantana near Kipu Kai in 1903 (see
Miller in 54; and records 77 and 78 included in Banko Part I (54)).
At that time it must have occurred in koa forest, dense and scrub
'ohi'a forest, and possibly non-native forest.
In the past 50 years or more the center of the rapidly dwindling
population has been in the denser, wetter portions of the 'ohi'a
forest in the southern part of the Alaka'i Swamp. In these portions
the 'ohi'a trees range from 0.6 to 27.4 m in height, and the canopy
closure is 80 to 100 percent. Rainfall averages about 380 to 508 cm
per year. There are now sporadic sightings anywhere near koa forest.
The elevation of its present range varies from about 1036 to 1554 m.
Most of the presently occupied habitat is deeply dissected by montane
streams. Here annual temperatures range from about 2 to 27 degrees C.
The species probably nests in cavities of trees. The terrain is
mountainous with cliffs and ledges, and is dissected with mountainous
streams. They have been seen near or on the edge of bogs but
apparently do not directly utilize bog habitats.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Molluscs
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Snags: Unknown
G Tree Cavities: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The early ornithologists noted the similarity of diet among the
various Hawaiian thrushes (02,03,24). The kama'o (large Kaua'i
thrush) was considered largely frugivorous. It feeds on berries of
opiko, or kopiko, (Psychotria hawaiiensis), olopua (Nestegis
sandwicensis), lapalapa (Cheirodendron spp.), 'akia (Wikstroemia sp.),
ie'ie flower bracts (Freycinetia arborea), winged and larval insects,
spiders, myriapoda and caterpillars, especially the loopers of the
geometrid moths. The kama'o of Kaua'i at certain seasons and in some
localities fed almost entirely on the berries of the poisonous 'akia
(03). The fleshy flower bracts of the ie'ie vine were also considered
a favored food (02). The stomach contents of one kama'o collected 16
August 1960 consisted chiefly of lapalapa berries and their seeds, but
there were a few small seeds (about 2.5 mm) of another species and
parts of a large heteropteran insect (18).
A recent study of the food habits of the 'oma'o of the Island of
Hawai'i mentions that 'oma'o were seen gleaning for insects on
branches and trunks of various tree species, but more frequently on
koa and kawa'u (Ilex anomala). Larger trunks appeared to be
preferred, and from perches birds often dashed into the air to hawk
flying insects. 'Oma'o also forage on the ground. The 'oma'o appear
to eat mostly fruit, including that of kopiko (Psychotria
hawaiiensis), kawa'u, ie'ie, mamaki (Pipturus albidus), olopua
(Nestegis sandwicensis), olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), and pilo
(Coprosma ernodeoides, C. menziesii, C. montana, C. pubens, C.
rhynchocarpa (03,04,28). During the recent study 'oma'o were seen
eating ripe maile (Alyxia olivaeformis) drupes, 'akala (Rubus
hawaiiensis), 'ohelo (Vaccinum berberifolium, V. reticulatum) berries,
and on many occasions they ate olapa, pilo, kawa'u, pukiawe (Styphelia
tameiameiae), mamaki, and naio (Myoporum sandwicense) fruits. The
authors of the recent study present a table that suggests that the
preferred items are insects and drupes of kawa'u. They note a
difference in diet from the earlier workers, presumably because of the
shift in distribution to the higher forests (55).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The Hawaiian thrushes are solitary, highly sedentary birds that
live in dense montane forests (04). In general reference to the
Hawaiian thrushes it is said individuals often sing in turn, as it
were in rivalry with one another, one beginning its song immediately
after the other finishes. Sometimes several take their part in these
concerts, and the performers may be stationed in trees only a short
distance apart, or the one most distant from the observer may be only
faintly audible. Whether in the breeding season or at other times,
they are fond of special stations, and will sing at intervals during
the whole day, and day after day from the same tree, and even from the
same bough. In this they exhibit some territoriality (03,17). Home
range and territory size are unknown (17).
PERIODICITY:
The kama'o is crepuscular and diurnal, sometimes singing before
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
the first light of dawn and on until darkness (02,03,17).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The kama'o is basically non-migratory, but there is some movement
of small groups to areas of food abundance (03,17).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The kama'o is now found only in the dense, wet 'ohi'a forest of
the Alaka'i Swamp, particularly in the southeast and southwest Alaka'i
Swamp south of Kohua Ridge. The nest of the kama'o has never been
found (17). The forest averages about 12 m in height, and has a dense
canopy of 80 to 100 percent cover. Understory is usually extremely
dense.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
The nest of the kama'o has never been found (57). The first nest
of the 'oma'o on the Island of Hawai'i was discovered in upland Kona
in a mamane (Sophora chrysophylla) (03). The second and third nest of
the 'oma'o were found in a kipuka off the Saddle Road near Mauna Kea.
The second nest of the 'oma'o was located 1.1 m from the ground near
the top of a tree fern (Cibotium sp.) trunk. The nest contained one
pipped egg when found on 11 May, 1968. The nest was supported, in
part, by the bases of both dead and living fronds. The nest was
triangular in shape when viewed from the side. In front, the distance
from the top of the nest rim to the tapering bottom was 14 cm (56).
The third nest of the 'oma'o found on June 23, 1971 held two small
nestlings with black down and a bright yellow mouth lining (05). Five
more nests of the 'oma'o were found in 1976 and 1977; they averaged
6.4 m from the ground; nesting materials included small twigs, leaves,
grasses, mosses, and fern pieces. For the first time the species
(omao) was found to nest in either cavities or on protected platforms.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Reproductive characteristics such as breeding behavior, age at
sexual maturity, breeding season, etc., are not known for the kama'o
(17,57). There are indications in this species of considerable
deviation from a spring breeding cycle. There was much singing at
times in both mid-July and mid-August, and the testes of the male
collected on 16 August 1960 were highly developed (13 mm long, gray).
Another condition suggesting a very prolonged breeding season was the
occurrence of full-grown, completely independent, immature thrushes in
August (18). For the 'oma'o of the Island of Hawai'i the time from
building of the nest to fledging of the young is about 30 days, and
the overall breeding season of the 'oma'o extends at least from
February to October (55).
PARENTAL CARE:
The nest of the kama'o has never been found (57). Several nests
of the 'oma'o of the Island of Hawai'i have been found (55,56) and the
young are altricial, both adults fed the young. One or two eggs, each
marked with large lavender splotches, compose the clutch. Adults
carry fecal sacs. Time from building of the nest to fledging of the
young is about 30 days (55). The adults continue to feed the young
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
for some unknown time after they leave the nest (03).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Throughout the Kaua'i forest predation by black rats (Rattus
rattus) is probably significant; and predation by cats (Felis catus)
and black rats is probably significant near Koke'e. Disease,
particularly avian pox, may be a primary factor in the early decline
and continued suppression of the population (02,03,17,19). Food
supply and cover in the kama'o present habitat appears adequate (17).
Hurricane Iwa, in Nov 1983, destroyed five to ten percent of their
habitat in the Alaka'i Swamp (17). Survival rate, mortality rate,
rate of increase, sex ratio, recovery potential, turnover rate, and
longevity are unknown (17,19). The population was estimated as 337
birds, plus or minus 122 during the period 1968-1973. Only 24 birds
were estimated in what had been their best habitat in the southern
Alaka'i in 1981. The primary objective of the Kauai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan is to prevent the extinction of the kama'o, among
others, and ultimately increase their population to 1,000 birds so
that they can be considered for downlisting to threatened status (17,
19).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The exotic black rat (Rattus rattus) is ubiquitous in the forests
of Kaua'i, and is presumed a potentially serious predator on birds. A
dead lactating Indain mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) was found on
Kaua'i in December 1976, and there are over 40 reports of this species
by the public. If it becomes established on Kaua'i it could be a
serious predator on all ground nesting birds. Cats (Felis catus) are
present-day predators on birds near Kokee, former habitat of the
kama'o and they could become established in the drier western part of
Alaka'i Swamp near the Waimea Canyon. Any increase in the Alaka'i
Swamp of mosquitoes (e.g., Culex quinquefasciatus) (all mosquitoes in
Hawai'i are introduced) or other insects capable of transmitting avian
disease (e.g. pox and malaria) could result in extinction of the
kama'o and several other endangered forest birds. Mosquitoes are
either absent, or nearly so, from the Alaka'i Swamp at present.
Introduced exotic birds that might invade the higher mountain forests
could serve as competitors, predators, or serve as hosts to carry
avian disease further into the forests. Feral goats (Capra hirdus)
and pigs (Sus scrofa) have destroyed habitat through much of the
Kaua'i mountains and populations need strict control. The introducted
Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus) does not now occupy
the puaiohi habitat but liberal hunting is needed if they are found
there (17,18,19).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The kama'o (large Kaua'i thrush) was extremely common in 1891
over all of the forest region of Kaua'i from near sea level on the
north side and outer edges of the forest to the mountain tops. It was
the most common bird in the Kaua'i forest at that time, wheras the
other birds seemed to have left the outer forest. By the late 1920's
and early 1930's it was not found in the outside forests, and only one
was seen in the depths of the forest (02). Thereafter, there was a
drastic reduction in numbers and range. Mostly they were found only
south of Kohua Ridge in the southwestern and southeastern Alaka'i
Swamp; there were some over estimates of population size. It was
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
recommended for inclusion on the Federal Endangered species list in
1969-1970 (17).
The reasons for the drastic decline in the population of kama'o
and many other Hawaiian passerines will never be fully determined, but
they are believed to have be:
1) Habitat destruction and degradation, both past and present, by
man (e.g., agricultural development), introduced herbivores and plants
which led to vegetative composition changes (02,03,05,17,18,19,20,21,
22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43).
2) Predation by introduced predators such as black rats (Rattus
rattus), cats (Felis catus), and the common mynah (Acridotheres
tristis) (03,05,19,20,26,31,32,33,34,40,44).
3) Avian disease, for example pox (Poxvirus avium) and malaria
(Plasmodium relictus) (02,03,05,19,35,36,37,43,45,46,47,48).
4) Competition from introduced birds (05,19,35,36,37,43,48,49,50,
51).
5) Over-specialization, lack of ability to adjust, and
impoverishment of the gene pool (03,19,36,49,52,53).
6) Hunting and collecting (03,05,26,31).
Predation and disease were the most likely factors to have caused
initial declines and the continued suppression of the population (17).
Black rats are ubiquitous throughout the mountains, and feral cats are
abundant in the Koke'e area. Pox-type lesions are common on exotic
birds in the lowlands and they may serve to carry disease into the
mountain forests (17).
Potential threats to the kama'o in the future are the dam
proposed for hydroelectric power and irrigation storage, increased
human use of present habitat, conditions favoring increase of avian
vectors (e.g., mosquitos) of avian disease, introduction of additional
predators (e.g., smakes that eat birds), further introductions of or
escape of caged birds capable of living in the Alaka'i Swamp, thereby
increasing competition and disease-parasite problems, and further
introduction and spread of exotic plants (17,18,19).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
Circumstantial evidence indicates that large Kaua'i thrushes are
caught between three challenges to their survival: mosquito borne
disease, habitat alteration by feral ungulates, and possibly, nest
predation by rats. Because the species is critically endangered
(fewer than 100 birds survive), their recovery plan recommends
bringing large Kaua'i thrushes into captivity for the purpose of
establishing a breeding and release program and maintaining frozen
semen. Ultimately, captive reared birds would be released into
suitable habitat. Procedures for this breeding program would be
developed through captive propagation of the 'oma'o (Myadestes
obscurus), a closely related species. The advantage of captive
breeding over leaving the thrush in the wild would be to isolate the
birds from disease and nest predation, two factors believed to be
responsible for the species' decline. Captive breeding would buy time
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
to implement a recovery program aimed at improving essential habitat
on Kaua'i, specifically:
1) controlling predators (rats), especially around nest sites,
2) halting destruction of habitat by feral ungulates,
3) preventing the spread of alien plants into essential habitat,
and,
4) reducing the density of disease vectors in essential habitat,
if ways can be found to do so.
Lesser or possible adverse effects caused by disturbance by people and
aircraft, development, and competition with alien birds must also be
reduced. Acquiring title or management rights to certain lands has
been recommended. Public education was recommended to build support
for recovery programs. Action should be taken very soon before the
tiny and dwindling population of large Kaua'i thrushes perishes
altogether.
No recovery actions are being taken, apart from population
monitoring. A captive breeding program is being planned by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, State of Hawai'i, and several mainland
Zoos.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
02 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
03 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
04 Pratt, H.D. 1982. Relationship and speciation of the Hawaiian
Thrushes. Living Bird 19:73-90.
05 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
06 Amadon, D. 1942. Relationships of the Hawaiian avifauna. Condor
44:280-281.
07 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
08 Stejneger, L. 1889. Notes on a third collection made in Kauai,
Hawaiian Islands, by Valdemar Knudsen. U.S. Natl. Mus. Proc.
12:377-386.
09 Ripley, S.D. 1952. The thrushes. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist.
Postilla No. 13.
10 Ames, P.L. 1975. The application of syringeal morphology to the
classification of the Old World insect eaters (Muscicapidae).
Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 26:107-134.
11 Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1940. A summary of the Hawaiian birds. Proc.
Sixth Pacific Sci. Congress 4:185-189.
12 Ripley, S.D. 1962. Brief comments on the thrushes. Yale Peabody
Mus. Nat. Hist. Postilla No. 63.
13 Ripley, S.D. 1964. Subfamily Turdinae. Pages 13-227. IN:
Checklist of Birds of the World, Vol. 10. E. Mayr and R.A.
Paynter, Jr., eds. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, MA.
14 American Ornithologist' Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
15 Committee on Classification and Nomenclature, A.O.U. July 1985.
Thirty-fifth supplement to the American Ornithologist' Union
Check-list of North American birds. Auk 102(3):680-685.
16 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian History Report 2. Coop. Nat. Park. Res.
Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
17 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station. USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
18 Richardson, F. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 227.
19 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
20 Anon. 1973. Hawaii's endangered forest birds. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
21 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birds. Wilson Bull. 84(2):212-222.
22 Banko, W. 1971. Preservation of Maui's endangered forest birds.
Condor 73(1):120-121.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
23 Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1940. A summary of the Hawaiian birds. Proc.
Sixth Pacific Sci. Congress 4:185-189.
24 Bryan, W.A. 1915. Natural history of Hawaii. The Hawaiian
Gazette Co., Ltd. Honolulu. Page 309.
25 Griffin, J. 1978. Ecology of the feral pig on the island of
Hawaii. Pittman-Robertson Proj. W-17-R, Study R-III. Unpublished
report on file at: Hawaii Dept. Land Nat. Res., Honolulu.
26 Griffin, J. Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea.
Pittman-Robertson Proj. W-17-R, Study R-III. Unpublished report on
file at: Hawaii Dept. Land Nat. Res., Honolulu.
27 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
world. Special Publ. 13. Amer. Comm. for Internat. Wild Life
Protect., New York.
28 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu.
29 Judd, C.S. 1927. The story of the forests of Hawaii. Paradise of
the Pacific 40(10):9-18.
30 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
31 King, W.B. 1977. Red data book. Vol.2: Birds. International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges,
Switz.
32 Kirch, P. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians on the
Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Sci. 36:1-14.
33 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982a. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: Evidence of wholesale extinction by man before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
34 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982b. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
35 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland, OR.
36 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian Birds. Audubon
Wildlife Report 1985:549-562.
37 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
38 Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawaii's native
biota. Pages 180-243. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems,
preservation and management. Proc. of Symp., June 5-6, 1984. C.P.
Stone and J.M. Scott. Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
39 Tinker, S.W. 1938. Animals of Hawaii. Nippi Jiji Pub. Co., Ltd.,
Honolulu. 188 pp.
40 Warner, R.E. 1961. Hawaii's birds - birth and death of an island
biota. Pacif. Discov. 14(5):6-14.
41 Warshauer, F.R. 1980. An overview of the feral pig problem in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Pages 476-480. IN: Proceedings
of the Second Conf. on Sci. Res. in the National Parks. Vol. 8.
Nat. Park Serv., Washington, D.C.
42 Warshauer, F.R., J.D. Jacobi, A.M. La Rosa, J.M. Scott, and C.W.
Smith. 1983. The distribution, impact and potential management of
the introduced vine Passiflora mollissima (Passifloraceae) in
Hawaii. Tech Rept. 48. Coop. Natl. Park Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. of
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
Hawaii, Honolulu.
43 Yates, S. 1984. On the cutting edge of extinction. Audubon.
44 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
45 Ali Navab, H. 1970. Epizootilogical survey of avian malaria in
the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Hawaii. 64 pp.
46 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
47 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47. Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. Hawaii,
Honolulu.
48 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
49 Henshaw, H.W. 1910. [Letter in report of the Board of
Commissioners or Agriculture and Forestry of the Territory of
Hawaii.] Pages 61-64. IN: Report of the Committee on the
introduction of birds into the Hawaiian Islands, Hawaiian Gazette
Co., Ltd.
50 Moulton, M.P. and S.L. Pimm. 1983. The introduced Hawaiian
avifauna: Biogeographic evidence from competition. Am. Nat.
121:669-690.
51 Mountainspring, S. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Interspecific
competition among Hawaiian forest birds, Ecol. Monogr.
55(2):219-239.
52 Henshaw, H.W. 1901. Introduction of foreign birds into the
Hawaiian Islands with notes on some of the introduced species. The
Hawaiian Annual 27:132-142. T.G. Thrum Publ., Honolulu.
53 Zimmerman, E.C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii, Vol. 1. Univ. of
Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 206 pp.
54 Banko, W.E. 1980. Part I. Population histories - Species
accounts, Forest Birds: Hawaiian thrushes. CPSU/UH Avian History
Report 6C and 6D. History of Endemic Hawaiian Birds, Dept. Botany,
Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822.
55 van Riper, C., III. and J.M. Scott. 1979. Observations on
distribution, diet, and breeding of the Hawaiian thrush. Condor
81:65-71.
56 Berger, A.J. 1969. Discovery of the nest of the Hawaiian thrush.
Living Bird 8:243-250.
57 Scott, J.M., J.L. Sincock, and A.J. Berger. 1980. Records of
nests, eggs, nestlings and cavity nesting of endemic passering
birds in Hawaii. 'Elepaio 40:163-168.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station. USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, LARGE
Species Id ESIS101023
Date 14 MAR 96
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
03 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
04 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
05 Banko, W.E. 1980. Part I. Population histories - Species
accounts, forest birds: Hawaiian thrushes. CPSU/UH Avian History
Report 6C and 6D. History of Endemic Hawaiian Birds, Dept. Botany,
Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822.
06 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
References - 4