(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
OTHER COMMON NAMES - THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL; THRUSH, KAUA'I and SMALL; PUAIOHI
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - MUSCICAPIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MYADESTES,
SPECIES AND SSP - PALMERI,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - MYADESTES PALMERI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Small Kauai Thrush
Myadestes palmeri (Rothschild, 1893)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Muscicapidae
The small Kaua'i thrush (puaiohi) has dark brown upperparts,
darker on the head; grayish underparts, becoming white on the abdomen;
a white eye-ring or white superciliary line; and flesh-colored legs,
in contrast to the dark brown legs of the large Kaua'i thrush
(kama'o). The puaiohi also is a smaller bird, averaging 17.8 cm in
length, and it has a longer and narrower bill than the kama'o (01).
The iris is brown, bill blackish, and feet are pearly white. The
sexes were considered similar (02), however, a female (as determined
by a brood patch) was recently differentiated from its mate by having
a lighter gray on the throat and breast, and had an indistinct dark
malar line. The male had a black malar line (03). On 12 May 1981 two
nestlings, in the first nest ever found, were almost fully feathered
with downy heads. Sooty gray pin feathers covered their heads, necks,
throats, and tails. Most conspicuous were their sooty-gray contour
feathers, tipped with light brown spots (about 1 mm in diameter),
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
which covered their backs, breasts, and flanks. Soft part colors
were: iris, dark brown; eye-ring, tan; bill, yellow; inside of mouth,
bright orange; and legs, pink (04).
Traditionally, the Hawaiian thrushes were considered in the
family Turdidae, but the 6th ed. A.O.U. Checklist of North American
Birds, 1983, P xviii, now places them in the family Muscicapidae, and
in the subfamily Turdinae (05).
A recent analysis of the taxonomy of both the small Kaua'i thrush
and the large Kaua'i thrush concludes that both are in the genus
Myadestes, rather than in the genus Phaeornis (06). This viewpoint
was accepted by A.O.U. in the 35th supplement in July 1985, and the
small Kaua'i thrush is now listed as Myadestes palmeri, and the large
Kaua'i thrush as Myadestes myadestinus. The English name was changed
to puaiohi for the small Kaua'i (or Kauai) thrush, and the name kama'o
is used for the large Kaua'i thrush (07).
The puaiohi was originally classified by Rothschild as Phaeornis
palmeri in 1893 from a specimen collected at Halemanu, Kaua'i, HI in
1891 (08).
The type specimen of the puaiohi (Myadestes palmeri) (AMNH 57077)
is in the Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. (AMNH), New York (09). Thirteen
specimens of puaiohi were found to be distributed as follows: 3-AMNH;
3-B.P. Bishop Mus., Honolulu; 3-British Mus. Nat. Hist., London;
3-Cambridge Univ. Mus. Zool. Cambridge; and 1-Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard
Univ., Cambridge (10).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The small Kaua'i thrush (Myadestes palmeri) has been designated
an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13), however, it is listed
in this Act under Phaeornis palmeri.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species by the IUCN and is also listed by the Convention
on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western
Hemisphere, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore and vector of seed dispersal. It is among the many rare
birds sought on Kaua'i by bird watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
69/03/08:34 FR 05034/05035 - Republished list
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
86/02/06:51 FR 04658/ - Notice of document avail., w/ name change
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Forested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The present puaiohi (small Kaua'i thrush) habitat is almost
totally in the Alaka'i Swamp State Sanctuary, which lies east of
Koke'e and the Waimea Canyon on the Island of Kaua'i, Hawai'i. The
Alaka'i Swamp is a temperate montane rainforest with a dominant cover
of evergreen 'ohi'a (Metrosideros collina) trees, and a fringe of koa
(Acacia koa) in the more mesic forest on the western side above the
Waimea Canyon. The mature stand of 'ohi'a trees average 12.4 m in
height. This deeply dissected plateau is about 1,220 m in elevation
and slopes toward the Waimea Canyon. Lapalapa (Cheirodendron
playtphyllum var. kauaiense) is a smaller abundant tree forming a
substory in most places (15). The lower vegetation is profuse and of
great variety. The large shrubs or small trees include several
species of Pelea, several lobeliads, kanawao (Broussaisa arguta), tree
ferns (Cibotium sp.), mountain naupaka (Scaevola glabra) and mamake
(Pipterus albidus). Still lower vegetation includes such common
species as pukeawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), peperomia (Peperomia spp.)
uluhe (Dicranopteris linearis) and other ferns, and several grasses
(14). Some introduced plants, e.g., fire tree (Myrica faya),
Himalayan blackberry (Rubus argutus) and lantana (Lantana camara),
have invaded the outer edges of the forest and destroyed it. This is
particularly true of the blackberry invasion on and north of Kohua
Ridge, and the lantana invasion along the Koke'e road. The forests
which were former habitat around Koke'e have been vastly modified by
cattle grazing in the first few decades of this century, plantings of
exotic trees and shrubs, and invasion of lantana and passion flower
(Passiflora spp.) (51).
The soils of the Alaka'i Swamp are mostly Ultisols, Spodosols,
and Histosols (52). They are clay-like, but often covered with a few
inches of organic matter.
The highest peaks, located near the center of the island and at
the southeastern corner of the Alaka'i Swamp, are Kawaikine at 1,598 m
and Mt. Wai'ale'ale at 1569 m. Rainfall averages 1230 cm per year at
Mt. Wai'ale'ale, said to be the highest average rainfall on earth.
Within the Alaka'i Swamp, (habitat of the puaiohi, 'o'o, 'o'u, kama'o,
nukupu'u and other forest birds), the heaviest rainfall is about 381
to 708 cm per year along the Wainiha Pali (cliff) on the east, but
only 127 cm on the western side next to the Waimea Canyon. Rainfall
of almost 102 cm in 24 hours has been recorded. On this high plateau
temperatures normally range from about 7 to 22 degrees C, with
extremes of -1 to 27 degrees C throughout the year (15,52).
Habitat Associations - 1 Pauiohi are seen both in terrestrial areas not considered
riparian, but most frequently they are found near mountain stream
areas heavily covered with various ferns. These small mountain
streams frequently have high steep banks. Only two nests of the
puaiohi have ever been found. The first nest found on 12 May 1981 at
1,335 m elevation was on a streamside cliff in the eastern Alaka'i.
It was situated in a cavity in the bank 1.3 m above the ground. The
earth bank was 6 m high, well vegetated, and about 12 m from the
stream. The cavity in which the nest was placed was 23 cm deep, 35 cm
wide by 23 cm high at the entrance, and sloped slightly downward (04).
The second active nest was at an elevation of 1,333 m along the
Halepa'aki Stream in the Alaka'i Swamp. This nest location was
similar to the first nest found (03).
The 'ohi'a canopy is roughly 90 to 100 percent through most of
the Alaka'i Swamp. There are a few open bogs throughout the Alaka'i
Swamp with scattered growth of a short variety (pumila, 0.6 to 1.2 m)
of 'ohi'a, and the puaiohi has been seen at the edge of one of these
bogs, but never using the bog itself (51). Perkins noted in the
1890's that the favorite spots of the puaiohi are those where koa
grows amongst the brushwood, and the ground is covered with dead
leaves and fallen twigs (02), but that description may not be true
today, now that much of the fringe of koa has been altered by grazing
of cattle and goats, plus the invasion of exotic plants (51). The
puaiohi uses low, dense ground cover, shrubs, and short trees in the
lower canopy, only using the top of the larger trees to sing (11,12,
51).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Molluscs
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Burrows
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The type specimen of puaiohi collected by Palmer had caterpillars
and seeds in the stomach. All specimens obtained by Perkins contained
the large hard weevils of the genus Rhyncogonus, which were believed
to form a large part of their food. Spiders and caterpillars are also
eaten, and the insectivorous habits of the species are strongly
contrasted with the berry-eating propensity of the other members of
the genus. An adult was seen carrying a very large, green looper
caterpillar (11). A quote from Perkin's notes states that the food
consists of lepidopterous larva, beetles, spiders and, exceptionally,
of small molluscs (02). At the nest found in 1981 the puaiohi were
not seen feeding their young, but they carried a millipede (captured
from the ground) and a pukiawe berry to the nest bank (04). At the
nest found in 1983 a female puaiohi was seen feeding a nestling two
pink berries (possibly pukiawe). An hour later the female arrived at
the nest with a 4 cm green dragonfly, which she caught on the wing
seconds before the nest visit, fed the nestling and departed with a
white fecal sac. Half an hour later the female fed a nestling a dark
berry (possibly lapalapa, Cheirodendron sp.) and departed with a dark
fecal sac. Twenty minutes later the female fed the nestling two dark
berries (possibly lapalapa) (03). Two puaiohi were collected in July,
1960. The food was chiefly the fruit of the lapalapa and the gizzards
were stained purple by the juice of these berries. The gizzards also
contained parts of at least 10 insects of several species (14).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Little is known of the home range or territoriality of puaiohi.
Usually only single birds and pairs are seen, although six puaiohi
were observed at one time in January, 1969. Territoriality may be
little more than a strong trill by the male from a high tree top, to
the buzzing alarm note often heard when they are first encountered.
Usually they are shy birds and quickly move out of sight through the
understory. Kama'o (large Kaua'i thrush) and puaiohi were observed in
the same area, but any interaction between the species, or with other
forest birds was never noted (51,53). Hawaiian thrushes are solitary,
highly sedentary birds (06). At the first nest site discovered, both
adults flew quickly from branch to branch within 5 to 10 m of the
observers. Upon alighting they assumed an erect, stiff posture, and
uttered short, single buzzing notes in an excited manner about every
20 seconds, which continued for 5 to 10 minutes before leaving. They
foraged if observers were 10 to 15 m from the nest (04). At the
second nest site both adults approached an immature puaiohi, gave the
harsh, buzzy single note call and all three birds flew away (03).
This was the same area in which Sykes and Sincock had seen one puaiohi
2 months earlier, and at which Sincock observed two puaiohi one year
earlier, and it was suspected by their behavior that they might have a
nest (51).
PERIODICITY:
The puaiohi is diurnal (51). Nesting is known from May to
August.
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The puaiohi is non-migratory, and is frequently found in the same
limited territory throughout the year (51).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The dominant tree of the puaiohi habitat is the 'ohi'a, averaging
12.4 m throughout most of the Alaka'i Swamp. Lapalapa is a small tree
usually in the area. Puaiohi are seen most frequently near small
mountain streams, heavily covered with ferns, sedges and mosses (51).
Both nests found were in or just outside of earthen cavities, one of
which measured 23 cm deep, 35 cm wide by 23 cm high at the entrance.
Tree ferns (Cibotium spp.) and other nearby native shrubs (Cyanea
hirtella, Coprosma sp.) afforded shade for the nest site, and were
used as perches by the parents (04).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Only two nests have been located. The first puaiohi nest was at
1,335 m elevation on a streamside cliff. It was in an earthen cavity
in the bank, 1.3 m above the ground. The earth bank was 6 m high,
well vegetated, and about 12 m from the stream. The cavity in which
the nest was placed was 23 cm deep, 35 cm wide by 23 cm high at the
entrance. The cliff protrusions overhung the cavity, which was
surrounded to the distance of nearly 1 m by dense mats of Sadleria
squarrosa unisora. Tree ferns (Cibotium spp.) and other nearby native
shrubs (Cyanea hirtella, Coprosma sp.) afforded protection and shade
for the nest site (04). The second nest was 4 m above a stream on a
12 m rock wall, at an elevation of 1,335 m. The wall was covered with
small ferns (Sadleria squarrosa), mosses, leafy liverworts, and
several isolated small plants. The nest was placed on a ledge of moss
in front of a small cavity. It was overhung by a rocky outcrop 1 m
above and by ferns directly above the nest. It appeared the nest was
made of mosses, leafy liverworts, and grasses (03).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Perkins stated that young puaiohi do not lose their spotted
plumage for two seasons. Two birds with spotted plumage were killed,
a male and a female, and the ovaries were very much enlarged, in the
condition of birds either breeding or about to breed (11).
Indications in mid-May were that the breeding season was approaching
(12). A prolonged nesting cycle similar to that of the 'oma'o on
Hawai'i was suggested in this species, because of two collected in
July, 1960, one specimen had large testes (7 mm, gray), while the
other, foraging independently was in the vermiculated immature plumage
(14) (see 11). The first nest found was on 12 May 1981. The outer
diameter of the nest was 11.6 x 10.8 cm, the inner diameter 9.0 x
7.2 cm, and the inner depth 6.0 cm. It contained two almost fully
fledged nestlings with downy heads (04). The second nest was found on
13 August 1983. A brood patch was seen on one bird, presumed to be a
female, and it was lighter gray on the throat and breast, and had an
indistinct dark malar line, in contrast to the black malar line of the
male. The nest contained one nestling; it was downy gray, with brown
feathers 1-2 cm long growing from its back, wings and tail. It was
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
possibly a second nest of the season (03). One puaiohi captured in
1965 laid a single egg in the spring of 1968. In June, 1969 it laid
two eggs. It laid several eggs at a later date. Three eggs measured
25.1 x 18.25, 28.0 x 18.9, and 29.8 x 17.95 mm. The ground color
varied from a very pale greenish blue to a pale grayish green. Large
reddish brown splotches and smaller spots were scattered over the
entire surface of the shells, but were especially concentrated around
the larger end of the eggs (01).
PARENTAL CARE:
Most of these factors are unknown. The nest site of the second
nest found was observed for two hours and only the female was seen to
feed the nestling. She fed the nestling four times and carried out
fecal sacs. The male remained in the area and gave the single note
alarm call frequently. It was possible that the male did not forage
for food or feed the nestling because of the observer's presence (03).
The young are altricial (03,04).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Current limiting factors are unknown, but predation and disease
are apt to be important (15,51). Survival rate, mortality rate, rate
of increase, sex ratio, recovery potential, turnover rate, and
longevity are unknown.
Since its discovery the puaiohi has always been considered to be
very rare and with limited range (11,12,15,51,53). During the period
1968-73 only 14 were estimated for the area west of the Alaka'i Swamp,
157 in the north Alaka'i Swamp, 6 in the southeastern Alaka'i Swamp
for a total population of 177 puaiohi, with a standard error of 96
from the 886 half hour counts at 50 stations. All population
estimates have probably errored on the low side because of
undersampling of stream habitats. The primary objective of the
Recovery Plan is to prevent their extinction, and ultimately increase
the population to at least 1,000 birds, so that they could be
considered for downlisting to threatened status. These objectives
might be satisified by habitat protection, predator control, captive
propagation, and maintenance of the sperm bank (15,51,53).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The exotic black rat (Rattus rattus) is ubiquitous in the forests
of Kaua'i, and is presumed a potential serious predator on birds. A
dead lactating Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) was found on
Kaua'i in December 1976, and there are over 40 reports of this species
by the public. If it becomes established on Kaua'i it could be a
serious predator on all ground nesting birds. Cats (Felis catus) are
present-day predators on birds near Koke'e, former habitat of the
puaiohi and they could become established in the drier western part of
Alaka'i Swamp near the Waimea Canyon. Any increase in the Alaka'i
Swamp of mosquitoes (e.g., Culex quinquefasciatus) (all mosquitoes in
Hawai'i are introduced) or other insects capable of transmitting avian
disease (e.g. pox and malaria) could result in extinction of the
puaiohi and several other endangered forest birds. Mosquitoes are
either absent, or nearly so, from the Alaka'i Swamp at present.
Introduced exotic birds that might invade the higher mountain forests
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
could serve as competitors, predators, or serve as hosts to carry
avian disease further into the forests. Feral goats (Capra hircus)
and pigs (Sus scrofa) have destroyed habitat through much of the
Kaua'i mountains and populations need strict control. The introducted
Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus) does not now occupy
the puaiohi habitat but liberal hunting is needed if they are found
there (15,51,53).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The puaiohi has been rare since its discovery (11,12). It
was not noted for 45 years after the last sighting in 1895 (10,12,13).
It was next seen in 1960 (14). During the period 1968-1973 the
island-wide population was estimated at 76 (S.E. 96) (15).
The reasons for low populations of puaiohi, and many other
Hawaiian passerines will never be fully determined, but they are
believed to have been caused by the following factors:
1) Habitat destruction and degradation, both past and present, by
man (e.g., forest clearing), introduced herbivores and plants which
alter vegetative composition and altered forest composition (01,11,12,
14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,
37,38,39).
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
2) Predation by introduced predators such as black rats (Rattus
rattus), cats (Felis catus), and the common mynah (Acridotheres
tristis) (01,11,15,16,26,31,32,33,39,40).
3) Avian disease, for example pox and malaria (01,11,12,16,31,32,33,
39,41,42,43,44).
4) Competition from introduced birds (01,15,31,32,33,39,45,46,47,
48).
5) Over-specialization, lack of ability to adjust, and
impoverishment of the gene pool (11,15,32,26,49,50).
6) Hunting and collecting (01,11,26,31).
Fossils, possibly 5,000 to 6,000 years old and considered
conspecific with puaiohi, were found on Kaua'i's southeast coast (30),
suggesting a more extended range prior to Polynesian arrival, and
before the discovery of puaiohi. The literature implies a much more
extensive range in the 1890's than at present (02,10,12). However,
except for the near-disappearance of the puaiohi in the Koke'e area,
the present range is not greatly reduced from that at its discovery
(51). During the 1968-1973 island-wide survey of Kaua'i it was
surveyed at 7 of 50 stations, and there were incidental sightings at 4
other stations. The northern-most location was at the headwaters of
the Mohihi Stream near Wainiha Pali, where 6 were seen at one time in
Jan. 1969, and 1 was captured and banded. A puaiohi was seen at
Koke'e between July 18 and August 5, 1974 by G. Swedberg (in 15),
probably the first sighting since it occurred there about the turn of
the century. Koke'e is not now considered in its normal range. It
was heard in Aug. 1969 on La'au Ridge, which probably was never
surveyed before, extending its former range to the east. Within its
present range the low population is probably now held down by
predation and disease. The major loss of range has been in the much
disturbed habitat, due to introduced herbivores, predators, roads and
cabins, and several introduced birds, west of the Alaka'i Swamp near
Koke'e. This would represent about one-fifth loss of range since its
discovery in 1891.
Potential threats to the puaiohi in the future are the dam
proposed for hydroelectric power and irrigation storage, increased
human use of present habitat, conditions favoring increase of avian
vectors (e.g., mosquitoes) or avian disease, introduction of
additional predators (e.g., snakes that eat birds), further
introductions of, or escape of, caged birds capable of living in the
Alaka'i Swamp, thereby increasing competition and disease-parasite
problems, and further introduction and spread of exotic plants (14,15,
51).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
Evaluating the recovery needs of the puaiohi has been hampered by
difficulty in detecting and studying the species. Recent surveys
suggest that this thrush is more numerous and widespread than
previously thought, though still rare and endangered. Major factors
of decline are the same as for the large Kaua'i thrush: mosquito borne
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
disease, habitat alteration by feral ungulates and alien plants, and,
possibly, nest predation by rats.
Because the species is critically endangered (at most a few
hundred birds survive), their Recovery Plan recommends bringing small
Kaua'i thrushes into captivity for the purpose of establishing a
breeding and release program and storing frozen semen for reproductive
manipulation and maintenance of the gene pool. Ultimately, captive
reared birds would be released into suitable habitat. Procedures for
the program would be developed through captive propagation of the
'oma'o (P. obscurus), a closely related species. The advantage of
captive breeding over leaving this thrush in the wild would be to
isolate the birds from disease and nest predation, two factors
believed to be responsible for the species' decline. Captive breeding
would buy time to implement a recovery program aimed at improving
essential habitat on Kaua'i, specifically:
1) controlling predators (rats), especially around nest sites;
2) halting destruction of habitat by feral ungulates;
3) preventing the spread of alien plants into essential habitat,
and;
4) reducing the density of disease vectors in essential habitat,
if ways can be found to do so.
Possible adverse effects on the species which need to be dealt with
arise from: disturbance by people and aircraft; development; and
competition with alien birds. These threats must also be reduced.
Acquiring title or management rights to certain lands has been
recommended. Public education was recommended to build support for
recovery programs.
No recovery actions are being taken, apart from population
monitoring. A captive breeding program is being planned by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, State of Hawai'i, and several mainland
Zoos.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
02 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
03 Ashman, P.R., P. Pyle, and J. Jeffrey. 1984. A second nest of the
small Kauai thrush. 'Elepaio 45:33-34.
04 Kepler, C.B. and A.K. Kepler. 1983. A first record of the nest
and chicks of the small Kauai thrush. Condor 85:497-499.
05 American Ornithologist' Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
06 Pratt, H.D. 1982. Relationship and speciation of the Hawaiian
Thrushes. Living Bird 19:73-90.
07 Committee on Classification and Nomenclature, A.O.U. July 1985.
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Check-list of North American birds. Auk 102(3):680-685.
08 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
09 Andors, A. November 1985. Personal communication. American
Museum of Natural History, NY.
10 Banko, W.E. 1980. Part I. Population histories - Species
accounts, forest birds: Hawaiian thrushes. CPSU/UH Avian History
Report 6C and 6D. History of Endemic Hawaiian Birds, Dept. Botany,
Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822.
11 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
12 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
13 Donagho, W. 1941. A report of ornithological observations made on
Kauai. 'Elepaio 2:52.
14 Richardson, F. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 227.
15 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
16 Anon. 1973. Hawaii's endangered forest birds. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
17 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian Birds 1972. Wilson Bull.
84(2):212-222.
18 Banko, W. 1971. Preservation of Maui's endangered forest birds.
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19 Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1940. A summary of the Hawaiian birds. Proc.
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20 Bryan, W.A. 1915. Natural history of Hawaii. The Hawaiian
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21 Griffin, J. 1978. Ecology of the feral pig on the island of
Hawaii. Pittman-Robertson Proj. W-17-R, Study R-III. Unpublished
report on file at: Hawaii Dept. Land Nat. Res., Honolulu.
22 Griffin, J. Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea.
Pittman-Robertson Proj. W-17-R, Study R-III. Unpublished report on
file at: Hawaii Dept. Land Nat. Res., Honolulu.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
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Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
23 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
world. Special Publ. 13, Amer. Comm. Internat. Wild Life Protect.,
New York.
24 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu.
25 Judd, C.S. 1927. The story of the forests of Hawaii. Paradise of
the Pacific 40(10):9-18.
26 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
27 King, W.B. 1977. Red data book. Vol.2: Birds. International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges,
Switz.
28 Kirch, P. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians on the
Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Sci. 36:1-14.
29 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982a. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: Evidence of wholesale extinction by man before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
30 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
31 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
32 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian birds. Audubon
Wildlife Report 1985:549-562.
33 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
34 Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawaii's native
biota. Pages 180-243. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems,
preservation and management. Proc. of Symp., June 5-6, 1984. C.P.
Stone and J.M. Scott. Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
35 Tinker, S.W. 1938. Animals of Hawaii. Nippi Jiji Pub. Co., Ltd.,
Honolulu. 188 pp.
36 Warner, R.E. 1961. Hawaii's birds - birth and death of an island
biota. Pacif. Discov. 14(5):6-14.
37 Warshauer, F.R. 1980. An overview of the feral pig problem in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Pages 476-480. IN: Proceedings
of the Second Conf. on Sci. Res. in the National Parks. Vol. 8.
Nat. Park Serv., Washington, D.C.
38 Warshauer, F.R., J.D. Jacobi, A.M. La Rosa, J.M. Scott, and C.W.
Smith. 1983. The distribution, impact and potential management of
the introduced vine Passiflora mollissima (Passifloraceae) in
Hawaii. Tech Rept. 48. Coop. Natl. Park Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
39 Yates, S. 1984. On the cutting edge of extinction. Audubon.
40 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
41 Ali Navab, H. 1970. Epizootilogical survey of avian malaria in
the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Hawaii. 64 pp.
42 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
43 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47. Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. Hawaii,
Honolulu.
44 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
45 Berger, A.J. 1977. The exotic birds of Hawaii. Norfolk Islands,
Australia: Island Heritage Limited.
46 Henshaw, H.W. 1910. [Letter in report of the Board of
Commissioners or Agriculture and Forestry of the territory of
Hawaii.] Pages 61-64. IN: Report of the Committee on the
introduction of birds into the Hawaiian Islands, Hawaiian Gazette
Co., Ltd.
47 Moulton, M.P. and S.L. Pimm. 1983. The introduced Hawaiian
avifauna: Biogeographic evidence from competition. Am. Nat.
121:669-690.
48 Mountainspring, S. and J.M. Scott. [In press] Interspecific
competition among Hawaiian forest birds. Ecological Monograph.
49 Henshaw, H.W. 1901. Introduction of foreign birds into the
Hawaiian Islands with notes on some of the introduced species. The
Hawaiian Annual 27:132-142. T.G. Thrum Publ., Honolulu.
50 Zimmerman, E.C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii, Vol. 1. Univ. of
Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 206 pp.
51 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station. USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
52 Armstrong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. of Hawaii.
222 pp.
53 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1976. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan, First Draft. Unpubl. Manuscript.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
02 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
03 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
04 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
05 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
06 Banko, W.E. 1980. Part I. Population histories - Species
accounts, forest birds: Hawaiian thrushes. CPSU/UH Avian History
Report 6C and 6D. History of Endemic Hawaiian Birds, Dept. Botany,
Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822.
07 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1976. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, KAUAI, SMALL
Species Id ESIS101024
Date 14 MAR 96
Plan, First Draft. Unpubl. Manuscript.
09 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station. USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. Current address, P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
References - 4