(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - NUKUPU'U
OTHER COMMON NAMES - NUKUPU'U; NUKUPUU;NUKU-PU'U; AKIALOA;'AKIALOA; NUKUPUU, AKIALOA; NUKUPU'U, 'AKIALOA; NUKUPUU, MAUI; NUKUPUU, KAUAI; NUKUPUU, OAHU; NUKU-PUU, KAUAI;NUKU-PUU, MAUI; AKIAPOLAAU and MAUI
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - HEMIGNATHUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - LUCIDUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - HEMIGNATHUS LUCIDUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Nukupu'u
Hemignathus lucidus Lichtenstein, 1839
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
Nukupu'us are small perching birds (total length about 5 in).
Their long curved bills should distinguish them. Males have yellow
heads (with a slight greenish tinge), grayish-green backs and yellow
(or graysih-yellow) underparts. Females, as well as immature birds,
are grayish-green above and pale gray below (01). The lower mandible
is only one-half as long as the upper, heavier, and similarly decurved
(02). Female and young Maui nukupu'u are duller below, have the crown
olive like the back, but their throat is yellow and there are yellow
supraocular stripes (02). The Kaua'i nukupu'u resembles the Maui
nukupu'u but the back is yellower, almost as yellow as the crown (02).
The Hawaiian honeycreepers, or drepanids, were in the family
Drepanididae. Amadon (02) considered the Hawaiian honeycreepers in
the family Drepaniidae, noting that Sushkin (05) used Drepanidae and
Mayr (06) favors Drepaniidae, but Amadon found there was a family of
fishes Drepanidae and a family of moths Drepanidae, and recommended
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
that Drepanididae be retained for the avian family. Amadon (02) noted
that species then assigned to the Drepanididae were once scattered
among several families, including the Fringillidae (finches),
Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers), and Australian honeyeaters (Meliphagidae).
Perkins (07) was the first to point out that the drepanids are
divisible into two distinct groups, the group "chlorodrepanine," or
green section, or subfamily Psittirostrinae (which included the
nukupu'u), and the group "melanodrepanine," or subfamily Drepaniinae,
which had some black plumage. Amadon (02) concluded that the
diagnostic characters of the Drepaniidae [sic] and related families
(e.g., Coerebidae, Thraupidae, etc.) are so slight in variation (when
they can be determined at all) that there could be scant objection to
reducing them all to subfamily status.
Pratt (08) notes the Hawaiian honeycreepers were traditionally
considered an endemic family Drepanididae, and their close affinity to
the cardueline finches. Pratt places the Hawaiian honeycreepers in
the Family Fringillidae, Subfamily Drepanidinae; the nukupu'u
(Hemignathus lucidus) in the Tribe Hemignathini, Genus Hemignathus
(akialoas, nukupu'us, and amakihis), Subgenus Heterorhynchus;
acknowledging: Hemignathus lucidus lucidus Lichtenstein 1839
(extinct); Hemignathus lucidus hanapepe Wilson 1889, and Hemignathus
lucidus affinus Rothschild 1893. The 1983 AOU Checklist (09) accepted
the revision of the Family Fringillidae to include the Subfamily
Drepanidinae (Hawaiian honeycreepers-formerly Family Drepanididae),
which is divided into the Tribe Psittirostrini (Hawaiian finches), the
Tribe Hemignathini (Hawaiian creepers and allies, including nukupu'u
(Hemignathus lucidus)), and the Tribe Drepanidini (Mamos, iiwis and
allies).
The Genus Hemignathus Lictenstein 1839, type by subsequent
designation (G.R. Gray, 1841), Hemignathus lucidus Lichtenstein.
Heterorhynchus Lafresnaye, 1839, Mag. Zool. Paris, 9, Pl 10. Type by
monotypy, Heterorhynchus olivaceus Lafresnaye=Hemignathus lucidus
Lichtenstein. And Viridonia Rothschild, 1892, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 6, 10, p.112. Type by monotypy, Viridonia sagittirostris
Rothschild (09).
Perkins (07) referred to the 'akialoas as Hemignathus, and to the
nukupu'us, (which also had the native names 'akialoa, 'akialoa
nukupu'u, or nukupuu), as Heterorhynchus, recognizing full species
Heterorhynchus lucidus (from O'ahu), Heterorhynchus hanapepe (from
Kaua'i), and Heterorhynchus affinus (from Maui).
Wilson and Evans (04) used the names: Hemignathus lucidus with
the synonymy: Hemignathus lucidus Lichtenstein 1838, Heterorhynchus
lucidus Reichenbach 1853, and Drepanis (Hemignathus) lucida G.R. Gray
1847. For Hemignathus affinus they use the synonymy Hemignathus
affinus Rothschild, Ibis 1893; Heterorhynchus affinus Rothschild; and,
for the Kaua'i form only, Hemignathus hanapepe Wilson 1980.
E.H. Bryan (10) uses the subspecies Hemignathus lucidus hanapepe
Wilson 1889, syn. Heterorhynchus hanapepe (Wilson); Hemignathus
lucidus lucidus Lichtenstein 1838, syn. Heterorhynchus Rothschild
1893, calling it the Maui 'akiapola'au, with syn. Heterorhynchus
affinus Rothschild.
Both Bryan (10) and Perkins (07) include the 'akiapola'au of the
Island of Hawai'i in Hemignathus lucidus, as H. l. wilsoni Rothschild
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
1893, with the synonymy Hemignathus olivaeus Wilson, nec Lafresnay,
1839, and Heterorhynchus wilsoni (Rothschild). The 'akiapola'au is
now classified as Hemignathus munroi Pratt, 1979, wilsoni Rothschild
being preoccupied.
Olson and James (11) depart from currently accepted
classification and nomenclature considering the Hawaiian finches no
more than a tribe (Drepanidini) within the subfamily Carduelinae,
placing that group in the Fringillidae as delimited by Sibley (12).
They recognize the genus Heterorhynchus for the species lucidus and
wilsoni, now usually included in Hemignathus. They say three races of
the nukupu'u are known historically, one each from Kaua'i, O'ahu, and
Maui. They found fossils of Heterorhynchus, probably referable to H.
lucidus in the deposits at Barbers Point, O'ahu, and at 'Ilio Point,
Moloka'i, the latter occurrence extending the distribution to another
island in the Maui Nui group.
Thus, one must be careful in the literature to be certain which
bird is being discussed.
Nukupu'u in Hawaiian refers to nuku, the bill of a bird, and
pu'u, a small round hill. The spelling of the common name may vary,
e.g., nukupu'u, nuku-puu, and nuku-pu'u.
There are 34 specimens of Kaua'i nukupu'u (Hemignathus lucidus
hanapepe) in museums distributed as follows: 9, American Museum of
Natural History, New York; 1, Academy of Natural Science,
Philadelphia; 5, including 1 mtd., Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu;
11, including 2 unsexed adults in spirits, British Museum of Natural
History, London; 5, including 2 syntypes, Cambridge University Museum
of Zoology, Cambridge; 2 Museum Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University, Cambridge; 1 Royal Ontario Museum, Ottawa (13).
There are nine specimens of O'ahu nukupu'u (Hemignathus l.
lucidus) in museums distributed as follows: 1, American Museum of
Natural History, New York; 1, British Museum of Natural History,
London; 2, Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge; 1 (type)
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, Cambridge; 2,
Naturhistorisches Mus., Vienna; 1, Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlijke
Historie, Leiden; 1, Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt.
There are 36 specimens of the Maui nukupu'u (Hemignathus l.
affinus) in museums distributed as follows: 12, including type,
American Museum of Natural History, New York; 1, Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia; 4, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu; 8,
British Museum of Natural History, London; 6, Cambridge University
Museum Zoology, Cambridge; 2, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard,
Cambridge; 1, co-type, Royal Ontario Museum, Ottawa; 1, Rijksmuseum
Van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden; 1, Staatliches Museum Fur Tierkunde,
Dresden.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The nukupu'u (Hemignathus lucidus) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. The Maui nukupu'u (H. l.
affinus) and the Kauai nukupu'u (H. l. hanapepe) are listed as
endangered species by IUCN, 1977.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore. It is among the many rare birds sought on Kaua'i by bird
watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing of Kauai nukupuu
69/03/08:34 FR 05034/05035 - Original listing of Maui nukupuu
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed relisting
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule on previous list, Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Forested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Presently the Kaua'i nukupu'u exists only in the wet to mesic
'ohi'a forests on the upper plateau at elevations from 1,160 to
1,280 m. On Maui it has been seen in the Kipahulu Valley and the
northeast slopes of Haleakala from 1,450 to 2,050 m in wet 'ohi'a and
koa-'ohi'a forests with well-developed understory (54,55). Features
in and adjacent to nukupu'u habitat include swamp wetland, streams,
bogs, and steep terrain (cliffs and ledges). The Hawaiian Forest Bird
Survey crew found the Maui nukupu'u at 1,600 m elevation in wet 'ohi'a
forest with 60 percent canopy cover, and a closed native understory
dominated by shrubs (35). Recent sightings on Kaua'i were at 1,160 m
elevation in mesic 'ohi'a forest with dense understory of native
shrubs. Canopy cover varies from 60 to 90 percent (56). Rainfall in
the Kipahulu Valley at about 1,500 m probably averages about 440 to
570 cm and in the nukupu'u range on Kaua'i rainfall averages about 380
to 510 cm annually. Temperatures probably range from -1 to 29 degrees
C in the Maui habitat, and +2 to 27 degrees C in the Kaua'i habitat.
On Maui in the Kipahulu Valley from 910 to 1830 m elevation the soil
appears to be a hydrohumic latosol; the soil is quite acid ranging
from pH 4.5 to 5.5. The texture appears to be a clay-loam (57). The
soils in the Kaua'i nukupu'u habitat are Ultisols, Hisotsols, and
Spodosols (58) and appear to be clay-loams. The area is deeply
dissected by mountain streams.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The nukupu'us forage in the bark for grubs and beetles, and
obtain caterpillars from leaves. Specimens collected had grubs and
caterpillars in their stomachs; others had remains of beetles (14).
Both the Kaua'i and Maui nukupu'u's manner of feeding greatly
resembles that of the 'akiapola'au. They hammer on the surface of a
trunk or branch and produce a tapping sound. The Maui nukupu'u on
rare occasions sucks the nectar of the 'ohi'a. Their favorite food
appears to be small brassy weevils of the genus Oodemas. The O'ahu
nukupu'u was said to be partial to banana flowers. For all the
subspecies of nukupu'u, the insect and other animal food consists to a
large extent of spiders; of caterpillars of Tineidae (e.g., Thyrcopa),
those that live within cases (swallowed case and all); and of the
larvae of some wood-boring beetles. Looper caterpillars are
frequently eaten. The favorite food appears to be the small brassy
weevils of the genus Oodemas. The nukupu'us come to the ground in
quest of fragments of lava for gizzard stones (07).
The Kaua'i nukupu'us seen by Sincock in 1972 and 1974 were
actively feeding on the nectar of 'ohi'a blossoms, and apparently
searching for insects among the leaves (36). The Kaua'i nukupu'u seen
in 1985 was also feeding on the nectar of the 'ohi'a flower (56).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Almost nothing is known of the nukupu'u's home range and
territory. The available evidence suggests that most of Hawai'i's
endemic land birds do not move more than a mile or two from the nest
in which they hatched. Some species do wander up and down, or around,
the mountain slopes at different times of the year (19). All the
subspecies of nukupu'u are of a sociable disposition, so that when
feeding they often join, or are joined, by several other kinds of
birds (07). A Kaua'i nukupu'u was seen in 1972 feeding in the same
'ohi'a crown with 'akepa and 'apapane. In another observation in 1974
a Kaua'i nukupu'u was feeding in the same 'ohi'a tree with 'apapane,
and a Kaua'i 'o'o was feeding in an adjacent tree 9 m away; there was
no interaction between the species (36). The Maui nukupu'u was often
seen in company with Pseudonestor (07). The Kaua'i nukupu'u has a
habit of accompanying little flocks of Kaua'i creepers (14).
The song of the three subspecies is similar and is a short, loud
trill. The call note is a loud "kee-wit," very clear and distinct
when the birds are in solitary pairs, and by it the sexes keep in
touch when feeding in different trees (07).
The nest, eggs, and young have not been found (07,17,59).
PERIODICITY:
The nukupu'us appear to be primarily diurnal (36).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The nukupu'us are non-migratory, but there is probably some
movement in relation to food supply (36).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
It is believed that nukupu'us probably prefer to forage on koa
instead of 'ohi'a because of the greater abundance of borers on koa (60,
07,35), but they are still found in wet to mesic 'ohi'a forest (32,36,
54,56). Forest canopies are usually dense ranging from 60 to 90
percent canopy closure, and there is a dense growth of native shrubs
(32,36,54,56).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
The nest, eggs, and young of the nukupu'u have never been found
(07,17,59).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Nothing is known of the reproductive characteristics (07,17,59).
PARENTAL CARE:
Nothing is known of the parental care of the nukupu'u. The young
are probably altricial.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Limiting factors are probably predation and disease. The remnant
populations on Kaua'i exist in very low numbers; 28 estimated on Maui
in 1980, and it was not found during survey count periods on Kaua'i
from 1968-1973, or in 1981 (35,36,37). Sincock observed the Kaua'i
nukupu'u only twice in 17 years, and believes there are probably fewer
than 100 birds. The nukupu'u continues to exist in relatively pristine
habitat on Kaua'i and Maui, with adequate cover and food supply, and
little competition by introduced birds (36). None of the factors of
population biology are known. The prime objective of the Recovery
Plan for Maui is to restore viable populations to non-endangered
status (28). The prime objective of the Kaua'i Forest Bird Recovery
Plan is to prevent the extinction of the endangered birds and
ultimately increase their individual populations to 1,000 so that they
can be considered for downlisting to threatened status (36).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Little is known of the Maui and Kaua'i nukupu'u. The populations
are probably affected by the introduced black rat (Rattus rattus) (37,
45). Disease, e.g., avian pox and avian malaria, may have caused the
extinction of the O'ahu nukupu'u and the rapid decline and continued
suppression of the populations of Maui and Kaua'i nukupu'us.
Mosquitoes, e.g., Culex quinquefasiatus, may transmit avian malaria,
or pox, and pox could be transmitted mechanically by introduced birds.
Mosquitoes were not introduced until about 1826 (17,40,48). The
raising of domestic chickens, which must be inoculated against pox to
be successful, or the introduced passerine or game birds may be a
source of pox (02,26,36,37).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The O'ahu nukupu'u was discovered in 1827, and existed in some
numbers until about 1860, and is now presumed extinct. The Kaua'i
nukupu'u from 1888 (the time of its discovery) to 1897 was scarce and
of restricted distribution. There was very little ornithological
field work on Kaua'i during the early 1900's and the species was not
sighted at all from about 1900-1960. However, it is believed that the
nukupu'u suffered a decline in population size beginning about 1900
(as did several other forest birds in the Hawaiian Islands).
Sightings have been extremely rare for the past 26 years. The Maui
nukupu'u was numerous on the northwest slopes of Haleakala from 1879
to 1896, but since then there are no further reports from the area.
It was rediscovered in 1967 on the east flank of Haleakala in Kipahulu
Valley where it was previously unknown. Sightings are rare, and both
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
the Kaua'i and Maui nukupu'u have only small, remnant populations near
extinction (15).
The reasons for the extinction of the O'ahu nukupu'u and the
decline in the populations of the Maui and Kaua'i nukupu'u will never
be fully determined, but the causes of decline of forest birds in
Hawai'i are believed to be:
1) Habitat destruction and degradation, both past and present, by
man (e.g., forest clearing/alteration, agricultural development),
introduced herbivores and plants which led to vegetative composition
changes (02,07,11,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,
31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44).
2) Predation by introduced predators such as black rats (Rattus
rattus), cats (Felis catus), and the common mynah (Acridotheres
tristis) (02,07,14,17,19,28,33,34,37,40,45).
3) Avian disease, for example pox and malaria (02,07,17,18,28,33,2
37,44,46,47,48,49).
4) Competition from exotic birds (02,17,18,28,33,34,35,37,44,49,50,
51,52,53).
5) Over-specialization, lack of ability to adjust, and
impoverishment of the gene pool (02,17,34,37,50,51,53).
6) Hunting and collecting (02,07,17,19,28), although hunting is not
believed to be a significant factor in the decline of the nukupu'u.
Predation and disease may have been the most likely causes of
decline and the continued suppression of the population. Black rats
are ubiquitous throughout the mountains, and feral cats are abundant
in some mesic areas. Pox-type lesions are common on exotic birds in
the lowlands and they may serve to carry disease into the mountain
forests (36). The nukupu'u also may have been adversely affected by
hiker or campers seeking rare birds (36).
Potential threats to the nukupu'u in the future include proposed
dams for hydroelectric power and irrigation storage, increased human
use of present habitat, conditions favoring increase of avian vectors
(e.g., mosquitos) of avian disease, introduction of additional
predators (e.g., snakes that eat birds), further introductions of, or
escape of, caged birds capable of living in the rainforest, thereby
increasing competition and disease-parasite problems, further
introduction and spread of exotic plants, and further introductions
and failure to control ungulates (19,28,33,36,49,53).
APPROVED PLAN (two plans):
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 110 pp.
Biologists know so little of the habits and whereabouts of the
nukupu'u that they recommend only recovery measures applicable to
forest birds generally. A first step towards recovery is to search
for localities at which nukupu'u can be found regularly. Further
studies of nukupu'u are badly needed. The Kauai Forest Birds Recovery
Plan recommends establishment of a sperm bank and captive breeding for
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
eventual release as the earliest phase in recovery of nukupu'u.
Avicultural procedures would be developed through trials with two more
numerous and related species, the 'amakihi and 'akiapola'au. Both the
Kauai and Maui-Molokai Forest Bird Recovery Plans place high priority
on restoration of habitat through control of feral ungulates, rats,
disease vectors, and alien plants. The Kaua'i Forest Bird Recovery
Plan calls for controlling the minimum altitude of aircraft over the
forest. Other human activities (e.g., land development and human
access) are already controlled within the Alakai Wilderness Preserve.
Both recovery plans also recommend public education as a way of
improving support for recovery programs.
Little has been done to implement these measures on Kaua'i. On
Maui, The Nature Conservancy recently acquired a conservation easement
to a 2080 ha parcel of essential habitat for forest birds. The site,
Waikamoi Preserve, is situated on the north slope of Haleakala.
Though these lands are not known to support nukupu'u, the parcel is
near State-owned lands where the species occurs. Future management
planned for Waikamoi should improve the habitat for forest birds,
including nukupu'u. At Haleakala National Park a program to control
feral ungulates is well under way; included is Kipahulu Valley, one of
the few localities still inhabited by nukupu'u. Lack of management of
essential forest bird habitat on State lands on Kaua'i and Maui
remains a serious problem. Though de facto wilderness, these forests
suffer from browsing and rooting by feral pigs, from incursion by
alien plants, and from other factors leading to the degradation of
forests as habitat for native birds. The State and U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service are planning a captive breeding program for forest
birds.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
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02 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae).
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03 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
04 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
05 Sushkin, P.P. On the systematic position of the Drepaniidae.
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06 Mayr, E. 1943. The zoogeographic position of the Hawaiian
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07 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
08 Pratt, H.D. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic avifauna
of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge.
09 American Ornithologist' Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
10 Bryan, E.H. 1942. Check-list of Hawaiian birds. 'Elepaio.
2(10):70-71.
11 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
12 Sibley, C.G. 1970. A comparative study of the egg-white proteins
of passerine birds. Bull. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. No.32. 131 pp.
+ 38 fig.
13 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian History Report 2, Coop. Nat. Park. Res.
Studies Unit, Univ. Hawai'i, Honolulu.
14 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
15 Banko, W.E. 1984. Part I. Population histories - Species
accounts, forest birds: Akialoa, Nukupuu, and Akiapolaau. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report 9. History of endemic Hawaiian birds,
Available from: Dept. Botany, Univ. of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu,
HI 96822.
16 Anon. 1973. Hawaii's endangered forest birds. U.S. Fish and
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17 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawai'i,
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18 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birds. Wilson Bull. 84(2):212-222.
19 Berger, A.J. 1975. Hawaiian honeycreepers, 1778-1974. 'Elepaio
35(9 & 10).
20 Banko, W. 1971. Preservation of Maui's endangered forest birds.
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21 Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1940. A summary of the Hawaiian birds. Proc.
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22 Bryan, W.A. 1915. Natural History of Hawaii. The Hawaiian
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Date 14 MAR 96
Gazette Co., Ltd. Honolulu. Page 309.
23 Griffin, J. 1978. Ecology of the feral pig on the island of
Hawaii. Pittman-Robertson Proj. W-17-R, Study R-III. Hawai'i
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24 Griffin, J. 1982. Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea.
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25 Haley, D. 1975. The last oo. Defenders of Wildlife
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26 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu.
27 Judd, C.S. 1927. The story of the forests of Hawaii. Paradise of
the Pacific 40(10):9-18.
28 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
29 King, W.B. 1977. Red data book. Vol.2: Birds. International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges,
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30 Kirch, P. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians on the
Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Sci. 36:1-14.
31 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: Evidence of wholesale extinction by man before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
32 Richardson, F. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 227.
33 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
34 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian birds. Audubon
Wildlife Report 1985:549-562.
35 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
440 pp.
36 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station. USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
37 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland, OR.
38 Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawaii's native
biota. Pages 180-243. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems,
preservation and management. Stone, C.P. and J.M. Scott. Proc. of
Symp., June 5-6, 1984. Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
39 Tinker, S.W. 1938. Animals of Hawaii. Nippi Jiji Pub. Co., Ltd.,
Honolulu. 188 pp.
40 Warner, R.E. 1961. Hawaii's birds - birth and death of an island
biota. Pacif. Discov. 14(5):6-14.
41 Warshauer, F.R. 1980. An overview of the feral pig problem in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Pages 476-480. IN: Proceedings
of the second conference on scientific research in the national
parks. Vol. 8. Nat. Park Serv., Washington, D.C.
42 Warshauer, F.R., J.D. Jacobi, A.M. La Rosa, J.M. Scott, and C.W.
Smith. 1983. The distribution, impact and potential management of
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
the introduced vine Passiflora mollissima (Passifloraceae) in
Hawaii. Tech Rept. 48, Coop. Natl. Park Res. Stud. Unit Univ. of
Hawai'i, Honolulu.
43 Wenkam, R. 1967. Kauai and the park country of Hawaii. Sierra
Club, San Francisco, CA. 159 pp.
44 Yates, S. 1984. On the cutting edge of extinction. Audubon.
45 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
46 Ali Navab, H. 1970. Epizootilogical survey of avian malaria in
the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Hawai'i. 64 pp.
47 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
48 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Tech. Rept. 47, Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. Hawai'i,
Honolulu.
49 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
50 Henshaw, H.W. 1910. [Letter in report of the Board of
Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry of the territory of
Hawai'i.] Pages 61-64. IN: Report of the Committee on the
introduction of birds into the Hawaiian Islands, Hawaiian Gazette
Co., Ltd.
51 Henshaw, H.W. 1901. Introduction of foreign birds into the
Hawaiian Islands with notes on some of the introduced species. The
Hawaiian Annual 27:132-142. T.G. Thrum Publ., Honolulu.
52 Moulton, M.P. and S. L. Pimm. 1983. The introduced Hawaiian
avifauna: biogeographic evidence from competition. Am. Nat.
121:669-690.
53 Mountainspring, S. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Interspecific
competition among Hawaiian forest birds. Ecol. Monogr.
55(2):219-239.
54 Banko, W.E. 1968. Rediscovery of Maui nukupuu, Hemignathus
lucidus affinus, and sighting of Maui parrotbill, Pseudonestor
xanthophrys, Kipahulu Valley, Maui, Hawai'i. Condor 70:265-266.
55 Conant, S. 1981. Recent observation of endangered birds in
Hawaii's National Parks. 'Elepaio 41:55-61.
56 Kepler, C. October 1985. Personal communication. Biologist in
Charge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Maui Field Station, HI.
57 De Wreede, R.E. 1968. A preliminary report on the ecological
conditions of Kipahulu Valley, Maui. The Nature Conservancy.
Pages 9-22.
58 Armstrong, R.W. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu. Pages 40-41.
59 Scott, J.M., J.L. Sincock, and A.J. Berger. 1980. Records of
nests, eggs, nestlings and cavity nesting of endemic passerine
birds in Hawaii. 'Elepaio 40:163-168.
60 Gressitt, J.L. and G.A. Samuelson. 1981. Cerambycid tree borers.
Pages 288-290. IN: Island ecosystems: Biological organization in
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Species NUKUPU'U
Species Id ESIS101025
Date 14 MAR 96
selected Hawaiian communities. Mueller-Dombois, K.W. Bridges, and
H.L. Carson, eds. Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
02 van Riper, C., III. 1982. Censuses and breeding observations of
the birds on Kohala Mountain, Hawaii. Wilson Bull. 94:463-476.
03 van Riper, C., III. 1973. Island of Hawaii land bird distribution
and abundance. 'Elepaio 34:1-3.
04 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
440 pp.
05 Richardson, F. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 227.
06 Banko, W.E. 1984. Part I. Population histories - Species
accounts, forest birds: Akialoa, nukupuu, and akiapolaau. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report 9. History of endemic Hawaiian birds.
Available from: Dept. Botany, Univ. of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu,
HI 96822.
07 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
08 Banko, W.E. 1968. Rediscovery of Maui nukupuu, Hemignathus
lucidus affinus, and sighting of Maui parrotbill, Pseudonestor
xanthophrys, Kipahulu Valley, Maui, Hawaii. Condor 70:265-266.
09 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station, USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
10 Kepler, C. October 1985. Personal communication. Biologist in
Charge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Maui Field Station, HI.
11 Conant, S. 1981. Recent observation of endangered birds in
Hawaii's National Parks. 'Elepaio 41:55-61.
12 Banko, W. October 1984. Personal communication. 630 Shushwap
Lane, La Conner, WA 98257.
References - 4