(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
OTHER COMMON NAMES - SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S; SHEARWATER, NEWELL'S; 'A'O; SHEARWATER, MANX, NEWELL'S; PUFFIN and NEWELL'S
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PROCELLARIIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - PROCELLARIIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PUFFINUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - AURICULARIS, NEWELLI
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PUFFINUS AURICULARIS NEWELLI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Newell's Townsend's Shearwater
Puffinus auricularis newelli (Henshaw, 1900)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Procellariiformes FAMILY: Procellariidae
The Townsend's shearwater (Puffinus auricularis auricularis) is
strongly brownish-black to blackish dorsally, white ventrally, with
black extending below the eye and contrasting sharply with the white
of the neck and throat. Sides of the throat are dark, with some
flecking on the sides of the neck and face; a dark half collar is
present on the upper breast. The thighs and undertail coverts are
uniformly blackish. The undersurface of the wing is bordered
anteriorly by a thin dark stripe; primaries and secondaries are dark,
forming a broad black trailing edge and wingtip. The underwing
coverts are bright white, except for a blackish elbow mark.
Newell's shearwater (Puffinus auricularis newelli) is similar but
slightly larger, with a longer tail. It lacks the gray flecking on
the sides of the throat and the undertail coverts of most individuals
are white basally and black distally (01).
The original description of the Newell's shearwater referred to
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
yellow feet (02), but this occurs only in old museum specimens. The
feet and tarsi are pink, with a definite pattern of grayish-black on
the toes and tarsi (03). Older birds develop more of a brownish hue
on their dorsal surface (04).
The Newell's shearwater was originally described and classified
as a full species (02). In 1928 it was suggested newelli of Hawai'i
may be a subspecies of Townsend's shearwater, Puffinus auricularis
Townsend, 1890 (05). In 1934 the Newell's shearwater was classified
as a subspecies of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus puffinus),
resulting in the trinomial Puffinus p. newelli (06). In 1952 Murphy
concluded that newelli was closer to typical puffinus, of the
Atlantic, than to its nearest neighbor, auricularis, of the Pacific
(07). In 1982, Jehl concluded that newelli is a well-marked race of
Puffinus auricularis. Hence, the trinomial P. auricularis newelli
(01). The Association of Systematic Collections included the Newell's
shearwater with Townsend's shearwater (32). A.O.U. 6th ed., 1983
included it with the Townsend's shearwater, but did not cover
trinomials (08).
Common name synonyms for Newell's shearwater include Townsend's
Newell's shearwater, the Hawaiian name 'a'o, Newell's puffin, and
Newell's Manx shearwater.
The type specimen of Puffinus auricularis C.H. Townsend, 1890,
was collected on Clarion Island, Revilla, Gigedo Islands, eastern
Pacific off Mexico, on March 4, 1889. It is stored in the U.S.
National Museum #117540 (09). The specimen designated as the type of
the Newell's race was collected by M. Newell in the spring of 1894 at
Waihee Valley, Maui, HI. It was described by Henshaw and is in the
Bishop Museum (10). Only seven specimens of Newell's shearwater were
known prior to 1954, and four of these appear to have been lost.
Forty six specimens were known to have been collected by 1967 (11).
In 1979, the distribution of several collections was as follows: 1 in
the American Museum of Natural History, NY; 1 in Auckland Institute
Museum, Auckland; 4 in B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu; 1 in Mus. Natl.
D'Histoire Naturelle, Paris; 36 National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, D.C.; 1 National Museum of New Zealand, Wellington; 1
Washington State Museum, Seattle; 1 Yale University Peabody Museum,
New Haven (12). During the period 1980-1984 more than 100 specimens
that died during salvage were donated to either B.P. Bishop Museum or
the Museum of Natural History. Annually 100 or more are available
(04).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
T: Federal Threatened
Federal Migratory
Commercial/consumption
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
Newell's shearwater (Puffinus auricularis newelli) has been
designated a Threatened species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found
including the State of Hawaii. Currently the known breeding range
includes only the Island of Kaua'i, Hawai'i. However, remnant
populations or recolonization attempts are evident on Moloka'i, Maui,
Hawai'i and possibly O'ahu.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13). The Act lists the
Townsend's shearwater (Puffinus auricularis), as well as the Manx
shearwater (Puffinus puffinus).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural
Resources, Division of Forestry and
Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as a vulnerable
species by IUCN under Puffinus p. newelli, the taxonomic
classification at the time, 1977.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was once a food popular with the indigenous Hawaiian
people, however the birds have not been hunted for decades. It is
among the many rare birds sought on Kaua'i by bird watchers.
75/04/21:40 FR 17590/17591 - Proposed listing
75/09/25:40 FR 44148/44151 - Final rule, listed as Threatened
85/04/05:50 FR 13708/13722 - Revised list of Migratory Birds
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
OCEANIC
LAND USE -
Residential
Commercial and Services
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and Util
Industrial and Commercial Complexes
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Orchards, Groves, Vineyards, Nurseries,
Evergreen Forest Land
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, subtidal OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Studies have been conducted on three major breeding grounds on
Kaua'i, and at least five other areas on Kaua'i, mostly inaccessible,
are believed to have some Newell's shearwater breeding. Existing nest
sites are typically within steep mountainous terrain between 150 and
700 m elevation. Nesting grounds have dense, almost 100 percent
coverage with uhule fern (Dicranopterus linearus) and similar ferns
0.9 to 1.8 m in height, which provided cover from avian, and some
mammalian predators. Tree cover, mostly 'ohi'a (Metrosideros
polymorpha) and occasionally koa (Acacia koa), is moderate to light,
with an open canopy, and the roots serve to shore up burrow entrances
and discourage pig rooting.
Rainfall in nesting areas ranges from 120 to more than 254 cm
annually. Although the Newell's shearwater is capable of climbing
shrubs and trees before taking flight, it needs an open downhill
flight path to become airborne; therefore, it favors ridge crests or
steep embankments for its nesting burrows, which are used from April
through November. The soil substrate within the nesting grounds must
be suitable for burrow excavation, yet not prone to erosion or
flooding. It varies from soft clays, to humus (03,04,35).
The urban or built-up land designated in the keyword list refers
to use of the air space by adults in their frequent trips to and from
the ocean from the interior nesting grounds, and the path of
fledglings in their trip to the ocean in October and November.
Increasing lights and utility wires are causing heavy mortality (22,
34,35).
The recent attempt to raise avocados at the base of the Nature
Conservancy's Newell's Shearwater Preserve at Kaluahonu, Kaua'i may
increase predation by rats and cats (04).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Crustaceans
General Fish
General Molluscs
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Burrows
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Over 10,000 Newell's shearwaters were picked up in the lowland
areas on Kaua'i, HI. All birds were weighed and several hundred
measured. However, these birds were primarily fledglings on their
maiden flight to the ocean and their stomachs were empty. There was
no regurgitation of food. Only a couple of dozen regurgitations have
been observed, and these occurred only when capturing birds on the
breeding grounds. Invariably squid was the primary food, and on two
occasions an adult Newell's shearwater regurgitated small, 4 inch
long, silver-sided fish (03,04). The stomach contents of five
Newell's shearwaters contained an average of 105 squid lenses as well
as partially digested remains of small fish and crustaceans (11). On
the breeding grounds adults take turns feeding the young by
regurgitation.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The Newell's shearwater first returns to the breeding grounds on
Kaua'i in early April, after wintering December through May in the
open ocean. The territorial nesting colonies cover 80 to 200 hectares
or more, and may contain several hundred to 1,000 or more adults. In
daily activities they return from the ocean shortly after dark (at
about 2200 hrs), usually calling and circling over the breeding area
before crashing down into uluhe fern within about 15 m of their
established burrows. Most circling and calling is within 2 hours
after dark, but on rainy, cloud covered nights these activities
sometimes go on well beyond midnight.
Once on the ground the shearwaters make their way under the ferns
until arriving at the newly dug burrows or burrows that have remained
intact from previous years. Burrows are scattered throughout the
breeding grounds, but occasionally two or more are within about a
meter of each other. Once in the burrows they lead a solitary
existence except for their mate, the nestling, and the occasional
invasion of another Newell's shearwater, which is generally quickly
ejected. After the adults desert the nestlings, the young will use
the area immediately outside of the burrow at night to test its wings
for a few nights shortly before fledging. Calling and departure of
some of the adults to feed in the ocean begins about one hour before
dawn. They use the same burrow year after year. Shearwaters feed at
sea singly or in small flocks within 320-650 km of Hawai'i from April
to November (03,04).
PERIODICITY:
In the nesting season during the day some adults and many
immature and non-breeding birds are feeding in the ocean, while others
are incubating their egg. Those returning from feeding arrive a few
minutes after dark, and those departing to feed leave about one hour
before first morning light. One adult will remain incubating the egg,
sometimes for several days, before the other parent returns from the
sea to assume incubation chores. Nestlings are deserted a few days
before fledging. There is a marked periodicity of "fallout" of
fledglings (grounding of individuals by collision) around lights in
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
October and November in relation to moonphase, whereby peaks of
"fallout" occur during the dark of the moon (03,33,35,36). It is not
certain what causes the periodicity in the "fallout", however, Sincock
and other tend to believe the fledglings are normally attracted to the
light of the moon but in a dark (or new) moon are misguided by urban
lighting (04).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Newell's shearwater is migratory. Adults desert nestlings
in September and remain at sea on their unknown non-breeding ground,
presumed south and west of Hawai'i, until their return to the breeding
grounds during the first week in April. Fledglings depart in late
September to early December (11,37,38). Although they are first heard
calling on Kaua'i during the first week in April, it is possible that
some silent birds arrive a few days earlier (04). During the April to
September breeding season adults forage for food in Hawaiian waters,
and presumably take a direct route to the ocean from the nesting
grounds in the mountains. There is some indication, however, that
they use flight lines through mountain passes and down river and
stream systems.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Newell's shearwater needs steep, fern-covered slopes with
scattered trees, on moist, soft clay to humus soils to dig their
burrow. Burrows are mostly under a sparse tree canopy. In 1967 only
two of thirty burrows located had two entrances. There is generally a
turn 4.6 to 6.1 cm inside the entrance. They averaged 1.1 m in depth
near the crest of the hill, but those further down the slope averaged
about 2.1 m in depth. Measurements of the burrow entrances were
consistent. Of six measured the range in width was 13.3 to 16.5 cm,
and the range in height was 7.6 to 8.3 cm (03). Of 19 burrow
entrances measured during the egg transplant studies, entrance height
averaged 9.9 cm, and ranged from 7.6 to 16.6 cm. Entrance width
averaged 13,8 cm, and ranged from 8.9 to 10.2 cm. Burrow depth
averaged 87.7 cm and ranged from 46.7 to 175.0 cm (39).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Nothing is known of the Newell's display, or the specifics of
breeding. Nestlings remain within their burrows, about an arm's
length back, after hatching, until at least late August. After full
feathering they venture toward burrow entrances. Some burrows have a
few 'ohi'a or koa leaves in them in a very light nest about the egg.
Ground cover is invariably dense uluhe fern and sometimes two similar
types of fern, which provides some protection from avian predators,
and may tend to discourage dogs and cats. The soil is a soft clay on
two of the known nesting grounds, and clay to loam with much organic
material at a third nesting ground, both of which are suitable for
burrowing. Scattered 'ohi'a trees are on two of the nesting grounds,
and scattered 'ohi'a and koa are on the third nesting ground (03,04,
35).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Based on studies of the similar Manx shearwater of Skokholm
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
Island, Wales it is believed that Newell's probably reach breeding age
at about 5-6 years, though a few may breed at 3 years (30). The
oldest breeders known were 19 years, but more recent records may show
an increase in maximum breeding age (40). Some non-breeding Newell's
shearwaters may return to the breeding grounds at age 2 years. The
receptive period of the female is about 3 to 4 weeks prior to egg
laying, and mating occurs in burrows or on the surface nearby (41).
Two to three weeks is required to form an egg (30). First calling of
the Newell's shearwater on Kaua'i is during the first week in April
(04). Most Newell's shearwater eggs are laid between May 25 and June
14, hatch 51 days later between 14 July and 3 August, and fledging is
in October and November. Newell's shearwaters incubate only one egg
during the breeding season (03,04,21,40). With the Manx shearwater
there is one case of relaying after an egg was lost (29). There is a
strong pair bond throughout life, but promiscuity and taking another
mate after losing one is not unknown (41). The Newell's shearwater
eggs are white and average 60.7 mm in length and 41.9 mm in width
(39).
PARENTAL CARE:
After Newell's shearwater eggs hatch in late July and early
August, both adults take spells attending and brooding the chick,
and are in constant attendance for the first week. After about a week
chicks can be found alone in their burrow during the day, but normally
it is fed and attended by one of the adults at night. The young are
semialtricial and ptilopaedic. Adults are believed to desert the
chicks beginning about September 20 until October, and head for their
wintering grounds, thus, presumably ending the family bond (03,04,21).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The relationship of the Newell's shearwater population to
breeding success, and reproductive success is not fully known (35) but
the dynamics of food availability in tropical and subtropical waters
could have an important role (27,29). In recent years there has been
no evidence of lack of food supply (04,21). Many habitats on Kaua'i,
and elsewhere in Hawai'i appear to have adequate cover suitable for
breeding grounds (04,21). There is a high rate of predation on eggs,
nestlings, and some adults on Kaua'i, from rats (Rattus spp.), cats
(Felis catus), pigs (Sus scrofa), dogs (Canis familiaris), and owls
(Tyto alba). Elsewhere in Hawai'i mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus)
are presumed to be a limiting factor on remnant colonies and
recolonization attempts. A few birds have been found with pox
lesions. Fires have swept three small colonies in the past 20 years,
and will remain a threat. The attraction of fledglings to light has
reached disastrous proportions, and possibly 50 percent or more of the
annual production crash around lighted areas. Over 10,000 fledglings
have been salvaged or found dead from 1978 through 1985 (03,22,31,33,
35,36).
Survival rate is believed much lower than that of the Manx
shearwater (40,30) but must await more data and analysis (04,05).
Mortality rate is as yet unknown. Populations have increased on
Kaua'i in the past 20 years, possibly from about 5,000 to over 10,000
and possibly recolonization attempts on other islands may have
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
increased, probably due to Kaua'i's salvage program. Sex ratios are
believed about equal. Due to high predation rates, and rapidly
increasing photopollution the recovery potential on Kaua'i is low
(04). Potentially some Newell's shearwaters might live into their
twenties (03,42). Ongoing studies may determine longevity.
The primary management objective under management is to delist
the Newell's shearwater as a threatened species, by reducing annual
fallout to 100 or less, providing protection to the eight known
nesting grounds on Kaua'i, and developing effective predator control
methods for nesting grounds (04,21,35).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Food resources in Hawaiian waters are dynamic and could affect
Newell's shearwater survival and production (35). Predation is high
at the nesting grounds from black rats (Rattus rattus), pigs (Sus
scrofa), cats (Felis domestica), barn owls (Tyto alba), dogs (Canis
familiaris) on Kaua'i, and on other islands where nesting formerly
occurred the mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is considered a major
predator. Pox has been found in some Newell's shearwaters and may be
related to the density of mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) or other
biting insects (04,21,35).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Methods of ameliorating the heavy autumnal "fallout" of Newell's
shearwater fledglings were researched in 1980-83 (33) and there are
current attempts by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and The Nature
Conservancy of Hawai'i, in cooperation with the Kaua'i Electric
Company, to shade street lights (04,21). Results of the translocation
studies to establish new colonies will require some more years of
data, but there have been returns since 1983 (04,21,39).
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Suppressing wildfire
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Reducing Urban Light Radiation
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Before and shortly after the turn of the century Hawaiians used
nestlings for food, but predation by the Indian mongoose (Herpestes
auropunctatus), introduced to Hawai'i in 1883 (13) is generally
believed responsible for the great reduction, and extirpation from
some of the Hawaiian Islands (14,15,16,17,18). Reasons for the
extirpation of the Newell's shearwater on most Hawaiian Islands are
not fully known, but it is believed that delayed arrival of the black
rat (Rattus rattus) may relate to decline (19). The black rat is a
major predator on many seabirds (20). In recent years black rats have
been predacious at well over 50 percent of Newell's shearwater burrows
under observation. A cat recently predated over 30 percent of the
burrows in one season (20). In addition to predation by mongoose
(Herpestes auropunctatus), cats (Felis catus), and rats, there is
significant predation of Newell's shearwaters by pigs (Sus scrofa),
owls (Tyto alba), and some dogs (Canis familiaris) (03,21,22,23). The
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
recent attempt to raise avocados at the base of the Nature
Conservancy's Newell's Shearwater Preserve at Kaluahonu, Kaua'i may
increase predation by rats and cats (04).
Hawaiians used fire to clear the lowlands (24) and undoubtedly
fires swept the fern-covered mountains, as they do now, destroying
nesting grounds and breeding Newell's shearwaters (04). By the 1930's
and 40's the Newell's shearwater was believed extinct, or nearly so
(15,25,26). Possibly food shortage in the subtopical water of
Hawai'i, or the more southerly wintering grounds after the turn of the
century caused a population crash requiring many years for recovery
(27,28,29,30).
Coinciding with the rapid development of the Island of Kaua'i in
the 1960's (e.g., increase in street lights, new brightly lit hotels,
lighted tennis courts and football fields) numerous Newell's
shearwaters were found grounded around these areas, and most were
killed by the initial collisions, cars or predators. During the late
1960's through 1977 hundreds of fledglings on their way to the sea for
the first time each October and November were found around lighted
areas and the public was advised to release them in the ocean.
Between 1978 and 1985 the public turned over 10,000 fledglings at
Shearwater Aid Stations established around the Island of Kaua'i, but
hundreds still died on the highways. This salvage effort probably
contributed to a building population on Kaua'i, and probably increased
attempts at recolonization of other Hawaiian Islands. It is believed
that at least 50 percent, and perhaps a much higher percentage of the
annual production of fledglings, after the already high egg and
nestling predation, is involved in the annual "fallout" each October
and November (34). With close to one million tourists visiting Kaua'i
each year the urban development is increasing rapidly and
photopollution may soon reverse the favorable increase in the Kaua'i
Newell's shearwater population and outstrip the salvage efforts.
The establishment of a viable population of mongoose on Kaua'i,
which now occurs on most other Hawaiian Islands, could quickly cause a
major decline in the Newell's shearwater population. In 1976, a dead
lactating female mongoose was found on Kaua'i, and the public has made
over 40 reports of seeing them, but their presence has not been
verified. Cargo between islands would be a likely mode of
introduction (04,22,35). Opening of trails through the dense
fern-covered nesting grounds would increase access by predators.
Introduction of predaceous snakes could also be disastrous (04,35).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaiian Dark-rumped Petrel
and Newell's Manx Shearwater Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Portland, OR. 57 pp.
The prime objective of the Recovery Plan for the Newell's
shearwater proposes to delist the species when these threats are
removed, specifically: (1) when the annual fall-out of more than
1,000 Newell's shearwaters is reduced to less than 100 birds; (2) when
long-term protection is provided for the 8 known nesting colonies; and
(3) when effective methods for controlling predators (especially the
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
mongoose) are developed for deployment at colonies.
The Recovery Plan recommends the following: (1) Testing another
method of recolonization in which artificial burrows would be created
at potential breeding colonies and young shearwaters would be
transplanted into these burrows just prior to fledging. The hope is
that these shearwaters would imprint on the new sites and return in
the future to nest; (2) Potential land uses such as military training,
construction of communication facilities, and intensive recreational
uses near nesting habitat could increase threats from fire, predation
and direct disturbance. Therefore, government agencies managing
nesting habitat should take action to prevent these threats through
their review of land use variance applications and zoning laws and
ordinances; and (3) Maintaining a sperm bank.
Moderately large colonies of Newell's shearwaters nest on rugged
slopes of Kaua'i Is. The species is threatened by three actual or
potential sources of mortality which need to be controlled: (1) the
present loss of fledglings that upon leaving the colony are attracted
to bright lights in developed areas and alight on roads and other
places where they are struck by cars, caught by dogs (Canis
familiaris), or meet some similar fate; (2) disturbance or mortality
caused by pigs (Sus scrofa), cats (Felis catus), and rats (Rattus
rattus) at colonies; and (3) by the very serious threat that the small
Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) might colonize Kaua'i Is.
from other islands of the Hawaiian group.
Efforts to assist the Newell's shearwater are well underway. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the State Division of Forestry and
Wildlife, and The Nature Conservancy have joined forces to develop a
program, "Save Our Shearwaters", with five subprograms. (1) Colonies
are being protected, (a) on private lands, principally the Kaluahonu
Preserve leased by The Nature Conservancy, which monitors both birds
and predators, and (b) at 5 colonies on State land, as carried out by
DFW. The State has given these nesting colonies high priority for
fire protection. (2) Fledglings found by the public are turned in to
local police stations. They are then picked up by wildlife personnel,
banded, measured, and released. This highly successful program saved
approximately 1,800 shearwaters in the fall of 1985. (3) There are
currently several approaches being taken to reduce autumnal fall-out
of fledgling shearwaters. Kaua'i Electric Company, for their own
reasons and in concern for the shearwaters, will over the next 20
years be replacing current street lamps with "cut-off luminaire"
fixtures which, it is hoped, will draw fewer shearwaters. Recent
research has failed to demonstrate the effectiveness of metal shades
in reducing shearwater fall-out (grounding of individuals by
collisions). Private firms, most notably tourist resorts, are being
encouraged to shield bright lights. (4) Efforts are being made to
reduce the risk of mongooses being accidentally introduced and
established on Kaua'i. (5) A cross-fostering program, using as foster
parents wedge-tailed shearwaters that nest along the coast, has not
led to the establishment of new colonies of Newell's shearwater.
On the whole, the Newell's shearwater recovery program is one of
the most successful endangered species programs in Hawai'i.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
References
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Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
Forestry and Wildlife, P.O. Box 1671, Lihue, Kauai, HI 96766.
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33 Reed, J.R., J.L. Sincock, and J.P. Hailman. 1985. Light
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34 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian birds. Audubon
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35 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaiian Dark-rumped Petrel
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36 Telfer, T.C., J.L. Sincock, J. Reed, and G.V. Byrd. 1985. Salvage
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37 King, W.B. 1970. The trade wind zone oceanography pilot study.
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38 Banko, W.E. 1980. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. Part I.
Population histories - Species accounts, Sea Birds: Newell's
shearwater ('a'o). CPSU/UH Avian History Report 5A. Coop. Nat.
Park Resour. Studies Unit, Dept. Botany, Univ. of Hawaii,
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39 Byrd, G.V., J.L. Sincock, T.C. Telfer, D. Moriarty, and B. Brady.
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40 Harris, M.P. 1966. Age of retun to the colony, age of breeding
and adult survival of Manx shearwater. Bird Study 13:84-95.
41 Lockley, R.M. 1942. Shearwaters. J.M. Dent and Sons, Ltd.,
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Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
London. 256 pp.
42 Harris, Michael P. 1978. Personal communication. Hill of
Brathens, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Banchory Research
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***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 King, W.B. and P.J. Gould. 1967. The status of Newell's race of
the Manx shearwater. Living Bird 6:163-186.
02 Banko, W.E. 1980. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. Part I.
Population histories - Species accounts, sea birds: Newell's
shearwater ('a'o). CPSU/UH Avian History Report 5A. Coop. Nat.
Park Resour. Studies Unit, Dept. Botany, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu,
HI 96822. 35 pp.
03 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
04 Sincock, J.L. Personal observations. Biologist in charge, Kauai
Field Station. USFWS, Endangered Species Program 1967-1984.
Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
05 Byrd, G.V., J.L. Sincock, and T.C. Telfer. 1979. The status of
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06 Kepler, C.B. 1985. Personal communication. Biologist in charge,
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07 Kepler, C.B., J. Jeffrey, and J.M. Scott. 1979. Possible breeding
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08 Scott, J.M. 1977. Island of Hawaii. IN: Recent observation of
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12 Henshaw, H.W. 1900. Description of a new shearwater from the
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References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species SHEARWATER, TOWNSEND'S, NEWELL'S
Species Id ESIS101026
Date 14 MAR 96
7(8):45-46.
19 Sincock, J.L. and G.E. Swedberg. 1969. Rediscovery of the nesting
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20 Byrd, G.V., J.L. Sincock, T.C. Telfer, D. Moriarty, and B. Brady.
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J. Wildl. Mgmt. 48(1):163-168.
21 Telfer, T.C. 1984-1985. Personal communications. District
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27 Hatch, G. 1959. Newell's shearwater, or ao. 'Elepaio
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35 Munro, G.C. 1941. Birds of Hawaii and adventures in bird study.
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36 Bryan, W.A. and A. Seale. 1915. Scientific bird hunting on Kauai.
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References - 4