(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - 'O'U
OTHER COMMON NAMES - 'O'U; OU; 'OU;HONEYCREEPER, 'O'U; CREEPER, HONEY+, 'O'U; 'O'U-PO'OLAPALAPA; 'O'U-LAUEO; 'O'U-LAVEO; 'O'U, HEADED, YELLOW-; 'O'U, GREEN, LEAF-; 'O'U-PO'O-PAPALE; 'OU'OU; 'O'U'O'U; 'O'U-LAE-O'O; 'O'U-PO'OPAPALE;OU-PO-PAPALE; OU, HONOLULU; OU, OAHU; OU, O'AHU; OU, MOLOKAI;OU, MOLOKA'I; OHU;GROSBEAK, BILLED, PARROT-; BIRD WITH A YELLOW HEAD;RAOUHLI;'O'U, HEADED, MATURE-; FINCH, LANAI, BILLED, HOOK-;FINCH, LANA'I, BILLED, HOOK-; FINCH, LANAI, BILL, HOOK-; FINCH, LANA'I, BILL and HOOK-
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PSITTIROSTRA,
SPECIES AND SSP - PSITTACEA,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PSITTIROSTRA PSITTACEA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
'O'u
Psittirostra psittacea (Gmelin, 1789)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
The adult male 'o'u has a gamboge-yellow head and neck, all the
rest of the upper parts olive-green inclining to yellow on the rump;
whole of the under surface greenish yellow with the exception of the
breast, which is grey; remiges and rectrices dusky brown margined with
olive-green; irides dark hazel; feet pinkish, and bill pinkish to
straw-colored. The adult female's head and neck is olive-green above
and grey beneath; the rest of the under surface is greyish white;
under tail-coverts are pure white. Adult measurements are: total
length 16 cm, wing 9.8, culmen 1.8, tarsus 2.4, and tail 5.6 cm (01,
02).
The Hawaiian honeycreepers (drepanids) were in the family
Drepanididae. Some authors included most species in the family
Meliphagidae, others included them in the Fringillidae, and the
Dicaeidae (01,03).
The AOU Checklist revised the family Fringillidae (including the
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
subfamily Drepanidinae, Hawaiian honeycreepers, formerly family
Drepanididae) and divided it into the tribe Psittirostrini (Hawaiian
finches); the tribe Hemignathini (Hawaiian creepers and allies); and
the tribe Drepanidini. The 'o'u is in the tribe Psittirostrini (09).
Synonymy for the 'o'u is long and complicated. Rothschild (03)
lists the following synonymy for the 'o'u: Parrot-billed grosbeak,
Lath (1783); "Bird with a yellow head", King (1784); Loxia psittacea,
Gmelin (1788); Strobilophaga psittacea, Vieill. (1817); Psittirostra
psittacea, Temm. (1820); Psittacirostra psittacea, "Raoulhi", Quoy and
Gaim. (1842); Psittirostra sandvicensis, Step. (1826); Psittacirostra
icterocephala, Temm. and Laugier (1829); Psittacopis psittacea, Cab
(1849); Sittacodes psittacea, Reichenow (1884); and "ou" (Loxioides
bailleui) Perkins 1983 (error in Ibis).
Wilson and Evans (01) present the same list and add: Psittacina
olivacea, Lichtenstein (1854). To this may be added: Psittacirostra
deppei, P. psittacea deppei Rothschild, Psittacirostra psittacea
oppidana Bangs (1911), and Dysmorodrepanis munroi Perkins (05,12,13).
Amadon also considered Perkin's description of an 'o'u from
Lana'i (13) (Dysmorodrepanis munroi) an abberant form (05), called the
hook-bill (or hook-billed) Lana'i (or Lanai) finch by Munro (12).
Fossils of Psittirostra psittacea were found on Kaua'i and O'ahu, and
the authors noted that the 'o'u once occurred on all the main islands,
and had not differentiated into subspecies (14).
Rothschild (03) lists "ou-po-papale", (Psittacirostra psittacea)
as an erroneous synonym for the palila (Loxioides bailleui) noting
Perkins (non GM), Ibis, 1893, p.103, was in error stating "There is,
in my opinion, no doubt that Mr. Perkins had mixed up the names of
Psittacirostra and Loxioides, as the description of the habits of his
supposed Psittacirostra - the highland distribution, its principal
food the mamane - leaves no doubt as to what bird he meant." Munro
(12) notes that palila has been applied to Chloridops through an error
that crept into a paper by Perkins in the Ibis when Perkins was unable
to check proofs. These errors lead to some confusion in trying to
understand Perkins paper (15, esp. p.103).
Rothschild (03) also described the 'o'u from O'ahu, which he
called the Honolulu ou, as Psittirostra olivacea, noting Psittina
olivacea Lichtenstein 1854, (it is only because the specimens in the
Berlin Museum are still in existence and are marked as the types of P.
olivacea, and they are from O'ahu, that we know that this name refers
to the O'ahu form of Psittirostra.)
Fortunately, the common names are not as confusing, but some
errors have occurred; 'ou is Hawaiian for Bulwer petrel (Bulweria
bulwerii) (16), and this was incorrectly applied by Dunmire (17).
Other common names in the list of Hawaiian names (16) are 'o'u
honeycreeper known only by Hawaiian name Psittirostra psittacea;
'o'u-po'olapalapa (male), 'o'u-laueo (female), indicating,
respectively, the yellow-headed and the leaf-green 'o'u; (Wilson
spells the second name laevo, which is obviously incorrect);
'o'u-lae-o'o, variety of 'o'u, similar to 'o'u-po'o-papale, Lit.,
mature-headed 'o'u; 'Ou'ou; 'o'u'o'u; and 'o'u-po'opapale, variety of
'o'u (16,18). Possible confusion exists with the 'o'u-hololo-wai
(Kauai akepa) and also the 'ouku'u (a rare variant of 'auku'u, or
black-crowned night heron) with the 'o'u. Inappropriately applied
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
names include: the Honolulu ou; the Oahu (or O'ahu) ou; Molokai (or
Moloka'i) ou; and Bloxam also called the bird "ohu" (01).
Three hundred twenty-three specimens of the 'o'u, or ou, were
found to be distributed in museum collections as follows (19):
American Museum of Natural History in New York, NY 55; Aukland Inst.
and Museum, Auckland, NZ 1; Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia,
PA 8; Bernice Pauaihi Bishop Museum in Honolulu, HI 77; British
Museum of Natural History, London 33; California Academy of Science,
San Francisco 2; Cambridge Univ. Mus. of Zool., Cambridge 11,
including 1 mtd.; Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, PA 3; Inst. Fur
Spezielle Zoologie, Berlin 5; Los Angeles County Museum of Natural
History, Los Angeles 3 mtd; Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard
University, Cambridge, MA 25; Museum National D'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris 9; Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna 3; National Museum of
Natural History in Washington, D.C. 56, including 2 skeletons; Royal
Ontairo Museum Ottawa 11; Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt 3; Staatliches
Museum Fur Tierkunde, Dreseden 2; University of California, Berkeley
3; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2; Yale University Peabody
Museum, New Haven 4 (19).
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The 'o'u (Psittirostra psittacea) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The species is not listed by CITES. It is listed as an
endangered species in the IUCN Red Data Book, 1977; and is listed by
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The 'o'u was formerly a principal seed dispersal vector for
plants with small seeded, fleshy fruits in low elevation forests.
There was a particularly close association between 'o'u and ie'ie vine
(Freycinetia arborea). The 'o'u is one of the rare birds sought on
Kaua'i and Hawai'i by bird watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed relisting
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final ruling on previous list, Endangered
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Forested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine EM1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The 'o'u formerly used a wide variety of wet, mesic, and dry
forest habitats on all six major Hawaiian Islands, ranging from the
very wet o'hi'a rainforests, through the mesic koa forests, into the
lowland kukui forest and lowland introduced vegetation, e.g. guava
(01,03,04,11,12,15,20). It now occurs in very low numbers, near
extinction, on the Islands of Kaua'i and Hawai'i, in only small
portions of its former range. The habitat associations discussed here
apply only to its present known range on Kaua'i and Hawai'i.
On Kaua'i it now occurs primarily in near-temperate to subtropic
wet mesic o'hi'a rainforest in the southern, more inaccessible
portions of the Alaka'i Swamp plateau at elevations ranging from about
1,065 to 1,280 m. There is possibly still some use of the mesic koa
forest fringing the western edge of the Alaka'i Swamp, although there
are no recent records. The old to mature growth of o'hi'a forest has
many standing snags frequently used by 'o'u. Tree cavities are used
for nesting by the Kaua'i 'o'o; the nest of the 'o'u has never been
found, but the lack of detection of the 'o'u nest and the recent finds
of several tree nesting species of Hawaiian birds suggests that the
'o'u may also be a tree cavity nester. The 'o'u possibly ranges
through about 6800 hectares of continuous forest, from the southern
part of north Alaka'i Swamp on Kohua Ridge south through the southeast
and southwest Alaka'i Swamp. About 2,400 ha in this range are on
private land, and the remainder is State-owned land designated as a
sanctuary. There are several small bogs of lichens, mosses, grasses,
fly-catcher plants, violets, sedges, etc. with scattered cover of a
dwarf variety of o'hi'a tree, merely 2 to 4 ft high. The wet o'hi'a
forest averages about 12 m in height, and there is usually a substory
of lapalapa (Cheirodendron spp.) trees in which 'o'u frequently perch.
Numerous meandering mountain steams dissect the area so that
except for major ridges which occasionally broaden into relatively
flat areas the land is a maze of narrow knife-like ridges, cliffs,
ledges, and steep inclines to adjoining streams. The soils throughout
most of the Alaka'i Swamp on Kaua'i resemble clay-loams with much
organic detritus, and occasional clay lenses exposed by weather and
erosion, or the rooting of wild pigs (42).
The soils in the present 'o'u range on Kaua'i are classified as
Ultisols, Histosols, Oxisols, and mixed types (62). Temperatures
normally range from about 7 to 22 degrees C, with extremes of -1 to 27
degrees C plus annually. Usually October to December and late
February to mid-April are the wettest periods, with rainfall rarely
Habitat Associations - 1 reaching about 102 cm in one day, but usually averaging 381 to 508 cm
per year over most of the area, with limited portions near Mt.
Wai'ale'ale averaging about 1232 cm annually (62).
The area appears relatively pristine except for some pig
destruction of the habitat and tall grasses along the small meandering
trails that can be difficult to follow in the frequent fog. On the
east, most of the south, and western portions of this perched
rainforest the palis, or cliffs, drop off 610 to 915 m below to the
rivers (42). On Kaua'i the 'o'u formerly (around the turn of the
century) ranged down the slopes, which are mostly too steep for human
travel, into the lower elevations with kukui trees and introduced
guava, to search for fruit and possibly caterpillars; reportedly
coming down to as low as 90 m elevation near the ocean (01,31). Most
of the land at the southern end of the Alaka'i Swamp down to lower
elevations is privately owned and has not been open for bird surveys
in the last few decades, so it is possible that some movement of the
'o'u off the upper plateau may still occur in seasonal searches for
food. This seasonal, or possibly daily, movement of the 'o'u possibly
exposed it more than most other forest birds to avian disease and the
vectors of transmission (04,12).
On the Island of Hawai'i the 'o'u are mostly restricted to the
eastern slopes of Mauna Loa in wet, subtropical o'hi'a forest.
Temperatures here would range from about -1 to 29 degrees C, and
rainfall from about 254 to 510 cm annually (62). The terrain is
a more gradual slope toward the sea than on Kaua'i, and streams are
less meandering. Soils range from exposed lava to clay loams, and are
classified mostly as Histosols and Inceptisols (62). The land and
forest is more vulnerable to destruction by human use and exploitation
than on Kaua'i. The 'o'u ranges over about 145 square km on a few
isolated areas in Hamakua and Puna Districts, with only 9 'o'u
estimated in the Puna area, and about 385 'o'u in Hamakua. During the
Hawaiian Forest Bird Surveys of the late 1970's the 'o'u on Hawai'i
Island was found between about 900 meters (2950 ft) and 1,500 meters
(4920 ft), in o'hi'a forest with dense canopy. The original range of
the 'o'u on Hawai'i is estimated at 7,043 square km, 1,368 square km
on Kaua'i, 1,485 square km on Maui, 501 square km on Moloka'i, and 186
square km on Lana'i. The 'o'u occupied dry lowland and montane
forests, mesic lowland and montane forest, and wet lowland and montane
forest (22,23). Reportedly, the 'o'u on Hawai'i used to seasonally
range more into the koa forest in search for looper caterpillars (04).
Both the fruits and flowers of ie'ie vine (Freycinetia arborea)
are a favorite food of the 'o'u, but ie'ie vine is not always a common
component in the range of the 'o'u. Perkins thought that the nest of
the 'o'u might be someday found among the tangle of ie'ie vines or in
uluhe fern (Dicranopterus linearis) (03,04,12).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Deciduous Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Coniferae
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Deciduous Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Lianas-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Snags: Unknown
G Tree Cavities: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
All authors acknowledge that ie'ie (Freycinetia arborea) fruit
and flowers were a favorite food of the 'o'u (01,03,14,12,15,20,10).
The large female inflorescence was its favorite, but it also fed on
the male flowers, and the red leaf-bracts which surround these. It
also, to a lesser degree, eats the fruits of several other trees, and
in forests above the range of the ie'ie vine it is partial to the
berries of arborescent Lobeliaceae, especially the large yellow
Clermontia. The fruit of the introduced guava (Psidium spp.) is
taken, as well as other foreign wild fruits. The nectar of o'hi'a
flowers is used by the 'o'u. The 'o'u feeds its young largely with
caterpillars, especially those of Geometridae (04).
Other foods reported are: wild mulberry (Morus alba) (01);
mamaki berries (Pipturus albidus), alanai ('alani) = orange (Citrus
sinensis), kopiko (Psychotria spp.), kawau (Ilex anomala), bananas
(Musa xparadisiaca), peaches (Prunus persica), insects (11); tender
leaves of trees, e.g. lapalapa (Cheirodendron spp.) o'hi'a ai, or
mountain apple (Eugenia malaccensis) (10,08); and olana (Touchardia
latifolia) (20), opuhe (Urera spp.) (13).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Despite the fact that 'o'u once was common on all of the six main
Hawaiian Islands almost nothing is known about its territoriality or
home range. Nests, eggs, and nestlings have never been found (07).
Henshaw (11) stated that they were generally found in small companies,
never singly, and that they always seemed to be paired; he believed
that they paired for life. Perkins (04) noted their movements to food
supplies (e.g. ie'ie flowers and fruits, guava fruits, swarms of
caterpillars). Bryan (20) mentions 'o'u feeding through the tops of
trees, usually several birds in a locality scattered about in scout
formation, within calling distance of one another; seldom alighting in
the same tree. Four 'o'u have been observed on the same dead o'hi'a
snag during May and may have been parents and young (42). Agonistic
behavior of the 'o'u among themselves has not been documented.
Obviously, since they occurred on all six main islands they are
capable of long sustained flight, and Bryan (20) mentions that in
their rapid, heavy and direct flight from one ridge to another they
are often in small companies. They can be predictable in the times of
day in which they use certain trees, being able to see them in the
same tree at 1030 hrs and 1620 hrs for days at a time (42). Because
of their rapid movement from snag to snag through the forest, as if
there was a definite distant destination in mind, it was impossible to
keep up with them and learn much of their habits. Sincock saw a pair
near Halehaha Stream, Kaua'i in the month of March; the female was
carrying a twig. They may have been tree cavity nesters (42).
PERIODICITY:
The 'o'u is diurnal; most of Sincock's observations of 'o'u have
been from about 0730 to 1700 hrs (42). Their seasonal movement to
food sources has been noted by Perkins (04) and Bryan (20,31) where
there are substantial movements up or down the mountain in search of
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
fruits of ie'ie, guava, or looper caterpillars. Their scarcity on
Kaua'i and Hawai'i now makes it difficult to add much to what little
is known of the 'o'u.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Perkins (04) noted the ou's movement downward below the range
of the ie'ie, where they frequented the clumps of kukui trees, but
many of these returned in the evening from these isolated clumps (in
middle Kona, Hawai'i in 1892) to the shelter of the continuous forest
at higher elevations. Movements between islands has probably occurred
during storms. Daily movements in search for food possibly involves
distances of 6.5 to 8 km (42). On successive mornings Sincock
frequently saw a small group of 'o'u moving along a particular ridge
near Halehaha Stream in early morning, and apparently a return
movement back along the same ridge in late afternoon (42).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The 'o'u is now found on Kaua'i and Hawai'i mostly in wet o'hi'a
forest below 1500 m elevation, where rainfall is in excess of 510 cm
annually. Lapalapa (Cheirodendron spp.) is the common tree in the
substory. The 'o'u once occupied many habitats on the six major
islands of Hawai'i, so probably more than anything else it needs a
relatively undisturbed o'hi'a forest above the normal range of vectors
of avian disease. Nothing is known of its needs for nesting (42).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
The nest, eggs, and nestlings of the 'o'u have never been found
(42,07). The 'o'u may be a cavity nester based on recent finds of
nests of other bird species such as the Kaua'i 'o'o.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The nest, eggs, and young of the 'o'u have never been found (04,
42,07). From the end of March to the middle of May females were found
with greatly enlarged ovaries (03). Young have been seen in June
suggesting a March-May breeding season (06). Sincock saw what were
believed to be two young with parents in May,and saw a young 'o'u
begging food from a female in May (42).
PARENTAL CARE:
Since the nest, eggs, and nestlings of 'o'u have never been found
little is known of parental care (04,42,07). Perkins (04) noticed
great numbers of young in the middle forest of Kona, Hawai'i in June,
some scarcely able to fly. The 'o'u feeds its young largely with
caterpillars.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Because of extirpation of the 'o'u on four major Hawaiian islands
and its near extinction on Kaua'i and Hawai'i it is most likely that
predation and/or avian disease have been and are the current limiting
factors (04,05,12,22,23,24,50). Nothing is known about survival rate,
mortality rate, rate of increase, sex ratio, recovery potential,
turnover rate, and longevity (42). The 'o'u, formerly an inhabitant
of six major islands, is one of the few of Hawai'i's Endangered forest
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
birds that offers the potential for translocation back to an island,
(e.g. Maui, which still has some reasonably good habitat).
Translocation of 'o'u to Maui offers the potential for reestablishment
of 'o'u, and research opportunities to determine if it can be done,
and why it might fail. The prime objective of the Kauai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan is to prevent the extinction of the endangered forest
birds, and increase their individual populations to 1,000 so that they
can be considered for downlisting to threatened status (24). The
prime objective of the Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery Plan (22) for the
'o'u is to assure viable populations are maintained and that they are
ultimately restored to a delisted status. Sincock believes the
recovery potential for Endangered forest passerines in Hawai'i to be
very low, considering the present state of knowledge of disease, its
control, lack of experience in captive propagation and reluctance to
use it for Hawaiian birds, and reluctance to attempt translocations of
birds into former habitats (42).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Little is known about the 'o'u. The populations are probably
affected by the introduced black rat (Rattus rattus) (24,50).
Disease, e.g. avian pox and avian malaria, may have caused the
extirpation of the 'o'u from O'ahu, Maui, Moloka'i, and Lana'i, and
its near extinction on Kaua'i and Hawai'i (04,12,22,24,36,50,53).
Mosquitos, (e.g., Culex quinquefasiatus) may transmit avian malaria,
or pox, and pox could be transmitted mechanically by introduced birds.
Mosquitoes were not introduced until about 1826 (27,53). The raising
of domestic chickens, which must be inoculated against pox to be
successful, or the introduced passerines or game birds may be a source
of pox (05,11,24,42). Cats may have been a significant predator in
certain parts of the 'o'u range (04,24,42).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Invertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The 'o'u was common on all of the six main Hawaiian Islands of
Kaua'i, O'ahu, Moloka'i, Lana'i, Maui, and Hawai'i. The 'o'u was last
collected on O'ahu in 1846, and possibly last seen by Perkins in 1893
(04,09). Bryan collected 16 'o'u on Moloka'i in 1907, and Munro
collected four in 1907; it probably has not been seen since (19,20).
It was last collected on Lana'i in 1927, and was presumed extinct
there about 1932 (12,19). Seven specimens of 'o'u were collected on
Maui in 1901, and that was the last report from Maui (19,21). Very
small populations still exist on Kaua'i and Hawai'i, in a limited
portion of its former range (22,23,24). One reason that the 'o'u
remained common while numerous other species were becoming extinct,
was their power of flight, which carried them from island to island,
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
especially during storms. Interchange of populations probably
permitted survival of the species for longer than other isolated birds
and, or course, smaller colonies were re-inforced from time to time
(25).
The reasons for the extirpation of the 'o'u on O'ahu, Moloka'i,
Maui, and Lana'i, and the decline in the populations on Kaua'i and
Hawai'i will never be fully determined. But the causes of decline of
Hawaiian forest birds are believed to be:
1. Habitat destruction and degradation, both past and present,
by man (e.g., forest clearing or alteration), introduced herbivores,
and plants (04,05,11,12,14,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,
35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49).
2. Predation by introduced predators, e.g., black rats (Rattus
rattus), cats (Felis catus), common mynah (Acridotheres tristis) (04,
05,12,22,24,27,29,36,41,45,50).
3. Avian disease, e.g., pox and malaria (04,05,22,23,24,27,28,
36,41,49,50,51,52,53).
4. Competition from exotic birds (04,05,22,23,24,28,36,41,49,53,
54,55,56,57).
5. Over-specialization, lack of ability to adjust, and
impoverishment of the gene pool (04,05,24,41,54,55,57).
6. Hunting and collecting (04,05,27,29,36).
Predation and disease were most likely to have caused declines
and continued suppression of the populations. Black rats are
ubiquitous throughout the mountains, and feral cats are abundant in
some mesic areas. Pox-type lesions are common on exotic birds in the
lowlands, and they may serve to carry disease into the mountain
forests. The 'o'u was known to come to low elevations, almost to the
sea, in search of food (01,12,42), where it would have been exposed to
disease.
Potential threats to the 'o'u in the future include proposed dams
for hydroelectric power and irrigation storage, increased human use of
present habitat, conditions favoring increase in vectors (e.g.
mosquitos) of avian disease, introduction of additional predators
(e.g. snakes that eat birds), further introductions of, or escape of,
caged birds capable of living in the rainforests, thereby increasing
competition and disease-parasite problems, further introductions and
spread of exotic plants, further introductions and failure to control
ungulates, geothermal development on the Island of Hawai'i, and
lumbering, chipping, and reforestation projects that destroy native
forests (22,23,24,29,42,53,57,58,60,61).
APPROVED PLAN (3 plans):
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawai'i Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 76 pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Birds Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 69 pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 110 pp.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
As with other critically Endangered forest birds, the main hope
for recovery lies in the captive propagation and reintroduction into
restored essential habitat. Since the 'o'u occurs or historically
occurred on the island of Hawai'i, Kaua'i, Moloka'i, and Maui (as well
as other islands) it is included in three Recovery Plans: Hawaii,
Kauai, and Maui-Molokai Forest Bird Recovery Plans. The prime
objective of the Kauai Forest Bird Recovery Plan is to prevent the
extinction of the Endangered forest birds, and increase their
individual populations to 1,000 so that they can be considered for
downlisting to Threatened status (24). The prime objective of the
Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery Plan (22) for the 'o'u is to assure viable
populations are maintained and that they are ultimately restored to a
delisted status. The Recovery Plan for forest birds on Hawai'i Island
recommends:
1) Acquisition of certain private lands and managing these as
sanctuaries. Critical Habitat on government owned lands are also
recommended for stricter conservation and more active management.
2) Reducing the impact of feral ungulates, alien plants, mammalian
predators, and mosquitoes as disease vectors.
3) Control of disease vectors is particularly critical to the 'o'u
which favors lower elevations, where densities of disease vectors are
greatest.
4) Reintroduction of 'o'u to the slopes of Haleakala on Maui.
5) Maintain a sperm bank.
6) Control human activities on Kaua'i such as aircraft traffic, land
development (roads, buildings, reservoirs), and recreational
activities.
7) New research into the life history of the 'o'u.
8) Establishment of a public information and education program.
Apart from population monitoring, no actions are being taken
specifically for the recovery of 'o'u. The State is presently
acquiring a 10,200 hectare parcel in Puna, part of which will be
transferred to the National Park Service; the remainder will be
designated as a Natural Area Reserve. This action will secure
essential habitat for 'o'u. The Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
included lands occupied by 'o'u until the 1980's; these lands are
contiguous with the Puna lands mentioned above. The National Park is
currently eliminating feral pigs from its lands. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (USFWS), assisted by The Nature Conservancy, is now
acquiring a 13,200 hectare tract on Mauna Kea for the Hakalau
National Wildlife Refuge. Lower elevations of this tract include
essential habitat for 'o'u. The refuge will be managed for forest
birds. Current plans for a breeding facility on Maui for endangered
birds may include the 'o'u among the species propagated. The facility
would entail a joint effort between the State and the USFWS.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
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04 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
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10 Munro, G.C. 1940. A vanishing bird (ou). 'Elepaio 1(4,5):1.
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15 Perkins, R.C.L. 1893. Notes on collecting in Kona, Hawaii. Ibis
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22 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery
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23 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
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33 Griffin, J. 1982. Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea.
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34 Haley, D. 1975. The last oo. Defenders of Wildlife.
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35 Judd, C.S. 1927. The story of the forests of Hawaii. Paradise of
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36 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
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37 King, W.B. 1977. Red Data Book, Vol. 2: Birds. International
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38 Kirch, P. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians on the
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39 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: Evidence of wholesale extinction by man before western
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40 Richardson, R. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
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41 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian birds. Audubon
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42 Sincock, J.L. 1967-1984. Personal observations. Biologist in
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Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
43 Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawaii's native
biota. Pages 180-243. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems,
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University of Hawaii. Stone, C.P. and J.M. Scott. eds.
44 Tinker, S.W. 1938. Animals of Hawaii. Nippi Jiji Publ. Co.,
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45 Warner, R.E. 1961. Hawaii's birds-birth and death of an island
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46 Warshauer, F.R. 1980. An overview of the feral pig problem in
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Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
Second Conf. on Scientific Research in the National Parks. Vol. 8.
National Park Service, Washington, D.C.
47 Warshauer, F.R., J.D. Jacobi, A.M. La Rosa, J.M. Scott, and C.W.
Smith. 1983. The distribution, impact and potential management of
the introduced vine (Passiflora mollissima) in Hawaii. Tech. Rept.
48, Coop. Natl. Park Research Study, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu, HI.
48 Wenkham, R. 1967. Kauai and the back country of Hawaii. Sierra
Club, San Francisco, CA. 159 pp.
49 Yates, S. 1984. On the cutting edge of extinction. Audubon
1984:62-85.
50 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
51 Laird, M. and C. van Riper, III. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. relictum
ssp. capistranoae (Russel, 1932) as the avian parasite there.
Pages 159-165. IN: Parasitological topics. E.V. Canning, ed.
Soc. Protozool., Spec. Publ. 1.
52 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
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53 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
54 Henshaw, H.W. 1910. Pages 61-64. [Letter in report of the Board
of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry of the territory of
Hawaii.] IN: Rept. of the Committee on the Introduction of Birds
into the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian Gazette Co., Ltd.
55 Henshaw, W.E. 1901. Introduction of foreign birds into the
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56 Moulton, M.P. and S.L. Pimm. 1983. The introduced Hawaiian
avifauna: Biogeographic evidence for competition. Am. Nat.
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57 Mountainspring, S. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Interspecific
competition among Hawaiian forest birds. Ecol. Monogr.
55(2):219-239.
58 Mull, M.E. 1974. Critique Re: Environmental Impact Statement for
a reforestation project within portion of the Waiakea, upper
Waiakea and Olaa Forest Reserves to Dr. Richard E. Marland, Office
of Environmental Quality Control from Mae E. Mull, corresponding
secretary and Big Island representative, 1 November 1973.
59 Mull, M.E. 1977. Industrial forestry for Hawaii. 'Elepaio
38(4):39-40.
60 Mull, M.E. 1979. Society critiques hapu'u harvesting. 'Elepaio
39(7):72-75.
61 Howarth, F.G. 1977. "Clean" vs. "Dirty" species - what birds can
be imported into Hawaii. 'Elepaio 38(4):45.
62 Armstrong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'O'U
Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
01 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vols. R.H. Porter, London.
02 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiienses: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
03 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV. D. Sharp, ed. The University Press,
Cambridge, England.
04 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu.
05 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, Second ed. Univ. Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
06 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian History Report 2, Coop. Nat. Park. Res.
Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
07 Sincock, J.L. 1967-1984. Personal observations. Biologist in
Charge, Kauai Field Station, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Retired. Current address: P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
09 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9.
10 Strine, P.A. 1986. Refuge established for endangered Hawaiian
forest birds. Endangered Species Tech. Bull. 11(1):5.
11 Bryan, W.A. 1908. Some birds of Molokai. Occ. Pap. B.P. Bishop
Museum 1:129-137.
12 Pekelo, N., Jr. 1967. [Letter regarding status of Molokai birds.]
'Elepaio 27:90-91.
13 Munro, G.C. 1944. Comments on birds of Hawaii. 'Elepaio
5(4):21-25.
14 Munro, G.C. 1945. Endangered bird species of Hawaii. 'Elepaio
6(1):1-6.
15 Banko, W. 1971. Preservation of Maui's endangered forest birds.
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16 Bryan, W.A. and A. Seale. 1901. Notes on the birds of Kauai.
Occas. Pap. B.P. Bishop Museum 1:129-137.
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avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365.
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19 Conant, S. 1981. Recent observations of endangered birds in
Hawaii's National Parks. 'Elepaio 41(7):55-60.
20 Richardson, R. and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 227.
21 King, B. 1961. Field notes in Hawaii. 'Elepaio 22(1):1-3.
22 Ord, W.M. 1963. Birds of the month. 'Elepaio 24(5):22-23.
23 Walker, R.L. 1964. Report on a recent field trip to the Alakai
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25 Throp, J. 1968. Minutes of meeting, May, 1968. 'Elepaio 28(11).
26 Gauthey, J.R., I. Atkinson and C. Huddleston. 1968. A trip into
the Alakai Plateau. 'Elepaio 29(3):19-20.
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Species Id ESIS101027
Date 14 MAR 96
27 Mull, W.P. and M.E. Mull. 1971. Sighting of 'o'u on Kauai trip.
'Elepaio 32(6):51-54.
28 Hart, A. 1973. Minutes of meeting. 'Elepaio 34(9):107.
29 Shallenberg, R., S. Conant, and D. Pratt. 1975. Minutes of
meeting-on a trip to Alakai Swamp, Kauai. 'Elepaio 36(12):154.
30 Munro, G.C. 1940. A vanishing bird (ou). 'Elepaio 1(4,5):1.
31 Perkins, R.C.L. 1893. Notes on collecting in Kona, Hawaii. Ibis
6(5):101-114.
32 Richards, L.P. and P.H. Baldwin. 1953. Recent records of some
Hawaiian honeycreepers. Condor 55:221-222.
33 Amadon, D.L. 1945. Birding in Hawaii National Park. 'Elepaio
5(9):55-56.
34 Donaghho, W.R. 1951. Journal of ornithological work during the
summer of 1937. 'Elepaio 9-12.
35 Baldwin, H.S. 1956. 1955 Christmas bird count Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park. 'Elepaio 16(8):41-42.
36 Dunmire, W.W. 1960. Peterson's visit on the Island of Hawaii.
'Elepaio 21(3):12-13.
37 Dunmire, W.W. 1962. Bird populations in Hawaii National Park.
'Elepaio 22(9):65-70.
38 Whitten, H. 1977. Fish and Wildlife Service finds almost 40 'o'u
on Big Island. 'Elepaio 38(4):46-47.
39 Pyle, R. 1977. Bird observations Mar-July 1977. 'Elepaio
38(5):77.
40 Smith, S. and D. Smith. 1971. Field notes. 'Elepaio 32:16.
41 Smith, H.E. and J. Jacobi. 1974. Field notes from the Big Island.
'Elepaio 35:20-21.
42 van Riper, C., III. 1978. An 'o'u observation at Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park. 'Elepaio 39(3):32-33.
43 Katahira, L. 1979. Volcano, Hawaii, Christmas Count. 'Elepaio
39:119-120.
44 Katahira, L. Volcano, Hawaii, Christmas Counts, 1980, 82, 83, 84.
'Elepaio 45(12):127.
45 Pyle, R. 1980. Bird observations, Mar. to July, 1979. 'Elepaio
41(6).
References - 5