(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN; PETREL, HAWAIIAN; PETREL, (DARK-RUMPED), HAWAII; PETREL, HAWAII; PETREL and DARK-RUMPED;UAU;'UA'U; UUAU; UWAU
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PROCELLARIIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - PROCELLARIIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PTERODROMA,
SPECIES AND SSP - PHAEOPYGIA, SANDWICHENSIS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PTERODROMA PHAEOPYGIA SANDWICHENSIS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaiian Dark-rumped Petrel
Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis (Ridgway, 1884)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Procellariiformes FAMILY: Procellariidae
Adult birds are stocky in appearance and approximately 40 cm in
length. Their upperparts are grayish-black, including their nape,
wings, back, rump and wedge-shaped tail. The forehead and underparts
are white including the underwings which possess prominent dark
margins. The bill is black. The legs and feet are pink with mostly
black webs. Measurements of adult birds are summarized in Simons (04,
05).
The Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia
sandwichensis (Ridgway)) or 'ua'u is one of two subspecies.
The other, P. p. phaeopygia, nests in the Galapagos Islands (01). The
dark-rumped petrel is a member of a large order of seabirds, the
Procellariiformes. These are long-winged pelagic birds that are
characterized by their tube-shaped nostrils. Most come to land only
to breed and are highly adapted to an ocean existence (02,03). The
dark-rumped petrel is a gadfly petrel and belongs to the family
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
Procellariidae, which also contains the shearwaters and the fulmars.
The gadfly petrels are most commonly found in tropical and
sub-tropical zones. The Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel is sometimes
considered to be a separate species, Pterodroma sandwichensis
(Ridgway, 1884) (35).
Synonyms of the common name include: Hawaiian dark-rumped
petrel, dark-rumped petrel, Hawaiian petrel, Hawaii petrel; and the
Hawaiian names uau (or 'ua'u), uuau, and uwau.
Illustrations or photographs of the birds can be found in Tuck
(03), Shallenberger (06), and Munro (07). Seventy-two museum
specimens of this species were located by Banko (12). Most can be
found in the Smithsonian Museum, Washington, D.C.; the Burke Museum,
Seattle, WA; the B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI; and the Los Angeles
County Museum, Los Angeles, CA.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial/consumption
Non-consumptive recreational
Ceremonial/Cultural
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia
sandwichensis) has been designated an Endangered subspecies pursuant
to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205,
87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has
this status wherever found. Critical Habitat has not been designated.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel, Pterodroma phaeopygia
sandwichensis, is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) under the listing of the dark-rumped
petrel, Pterodroma phaeopygia (50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered, Nongame Bird
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Ch. 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel is not listed by CITES. It is
listed as an Endangered species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Animals (1986), and is listed by the U.S. in the Annex to the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The dark-rumped petrel is sought on Maui by bird watchers. It
was historically taken by the Polynesians for food. Henshaw (14)
reported "It is said that years ago the nestlings of the 'Ua'u were
considered a great delicacy, and were tabooed for the exclusive use of
the chiefs." It appears that both adults and nestlings were harvested
on a large scale and the remains of dark-rumped petrels have been
found in abundance in middens and lava tubes throughout the islands
(15).
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Status review
85/07/01:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
COASTAL
OCEANIC
LAND USE -
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
Bare Exposed Rock
Mixed Barren Land
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, subtidal OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Considerable effort has been expended searching for dark-rumped
petrels on the island of Hawai'i since the discovery of five active
burrows near Puu Kole on the barren southeast slope of Mauna Kea in
1954 (23). Banko (12) surveyed the island extensively from 1968 to
1978 and concluded that "The only known breeding group extant on the
island of Hawai'i is a small scattered group which nests on the
Southwest Rift of Mauna Loa. Another small scattered population may
exist in or near Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park and/or along the
flanks of the northeast rift where recent indications have been
found". Conant, in 1978 (26), reported hearing dark-rumped petrels in
a small (approximately 2 ha) area at about 2450 m elevation along the
Mauna Loa Summit Trail, although no active burrows were found. It
appears, therefore, that only a small breeding population survives on
the island of Hawai'i.
On Lana'i, a potentially sizeable population may exist in moist
forest along the ridges of Kumoa Gulch at an elevation of 825 m (24,
25). In Moloka'i, in 1980, five to ten calling birds were heard in
moist forest along the upper southeast corner of Wailau Valley. The
birds appeared to be congregating along the cliffs below Pu'u 'Ohelo
at an elevation of approximately 1000 m (22). On Kaua'i, several
grounded dark-rumped petrel fledglings have been collected in recent
years as part of the Newell's shearwater recovery program (34). Most
birds have been found near the mouth of Waimea Canyon indicating that
some birds still breed in the vicinity.
Observations of the dark-rumped petrel at sea are scarce.
Henshaw (14) reported "The natives inform me that the 'ua'u is common
on the fishing grounds, some five to ten miles off the windward side
of Hawaii.", but there appear to be no other early reports of the
distribution at sea. Records of the birds at sea were collected by
the Smithsonian's Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program in the late
1960's (27,28). Banko (12) recounts a conversation with the skipper
of a fishing boat who told him that "'Ua'u were present in Hawaiian
waters (from South Point, Island of Hawaii to French Frigate Shoals,
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands) from May to October, and were absent
from about November to April." Pitman (29) reported over 1200
sightings of dark-rumped petrels at sea and found the birds to be
widespread over the eastern tropical Pacific.
The largest and most important nesting colony of the dark-rumped
petrel remaining today (approx. 430 breeding pairs) is located in and
Habitat Associations - 1 around Haleakala National Park, Kula Forest Reserve (FR) and Kahikinui
FR, on Maui (04,05,21). It is clear that, to a large extent, the fate
of the Hawaiian population depends on the future of this colony. The
Park encompasses most of the summit of Haleakala, a volcano that
extends 3,055 m above the Pacific Ocean and comprises over half of the
land area of Maui. Haleakala is a dormant shield volcano with a large
erosion depression at its center. This depression forms a 51.8 square
meter crater which lies over 1,000 meters below the rim of the
volcano. The soils on Haleakala are primarily lithosols and regosols
(30). The regosols, formed of volcanic ash and cinders and covering
much of the central crater area, are not suitable for burrowing and
are not utilized by nesting petrels. The lithosols are characterized
by a mixture of boulders and erosional debris in an association with
bedrock, and they provide the primary nesting substrate for the
dark-rumped petrel. These soils are found primarily along the steep,
(50-70% slope), walls of the west crater rim between an elevation of
2,500 and 3,000 meters, and it is in these areas that most petrel
nesting habitat is concentrated. Dark-rumped petrels are nevertheless
eclectic in their choice of nesting sites, and some burrows have been
located in almost every habitat associated with the summit areas of
Haleakala.
They can nest in a variety of enivironments from rain forest to
sub-alpine rocky cliffs and will breed successfully as long as they
are protected from predators (04,05,21).
The vegetation associated with nesting areas is characterized
primarily as sub-humid and sub-alpine. In these dry habitats
vegetative cover is generally less than 10%. Several shrubby species
dominate the plant community: pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae),
kukaenene (Coprosma montana), 'ohelo (Vaccinium reticulatum), and
Kupaoa (Dubautia menziesii). Other common species include
tetramolopium (Tetramolopium humile) and the Haleakala silversword
(Argyroxiphium sandwicense). At lower elevations, receiving slightly
more precipitation, petrels burrow extensively in soil-covered slopes.
Where goats are absent these slopes are blanketed with several species
of native grasses (Trisetum glomeratum, Deschampsia nubigena,
Agrostris sandwicensis) and bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum). A
small sub-colony has also been located along the more densely
vegetated south rim of the crater, where birds nest in a shrub
community composed primarily of 'ohelo, pukiawe, kupaoa, and mamane
(Sophora chrysophylla).
Dark-rumped petrel burrows are most commonly located at the base
of rock outcrops where the accumulated erosional debris provides a
high degree of local relief. Nest sites are highly variable and birds
use natural crevices less than one meter in length as well as cracks
and lava tubes that penetrate over 10 meters into the cliff face.
Petrels also excavate extensive tunnels into softer substrate, usually
beneath a large boulder or rock ledge. Over 95% of the 419 burrows
examined at Haleakala were at least partially excavated by the birds
and were associated with a rock outcrop or boulder (04,05). Most
burrows of this type were excavated along the edge of the outcrop or
boulder so that the burrow was formed of soil on the sides and bottom
and rock on the roof. A small number of birds use natural cavitites,
and a few burrows are excavated at the bases of shrubs or in sod
covered soil. Less than 10% of the burrows examined were shorter than
one meter and at least 44% were over two meters in length. Burrow
entrances ranged from cracks only 4 centimeters in diameter to caves
over 2 meters across. Burrow entances averaged 19.14 cm in diameter
which makes most burrows accessible to the most serious mammalian
predators: mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus), cats (Felis
domesticus), and rats (Rattus spp.).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Zooplankton
General Worms
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Bottomland
G Terrestrial Features: Loess Hills
G Terrestrial Features: Caves, dry
G Terrestrial Features: Burrows
G Terrestrial Features: Talus
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Nineteen food loads were collected by Simons (04,05) during a
study of breeding adult dark-rumped petrels. The samples were
regurgitated by birds that were trapped during the nestling period as
part of a banding study, and they do not represent a systematic
attempt to determine the food habits of the dark-rumped petrel.
Nevertheless, they did contain a variety of prey items that give some
indication of the feeding ecology of these birds.
A total of 10 different prey types were identified from three
classes of marine organisms. Based on these data, it appears that
squid predominate in the diet (50% to 75% of the total volume)
followed by fishes and crustacea. Zooplankton and worms were consumed
in minor amounts. This finding is in agreement with the evidence
available for other gadfly petrels of the genus Pterodroma.
Gadfly petrels are more aerial than those Procellariiformes that
feed primarily by diving, and the former lacks the laterally
compressed, streamlined legs that are characteristic of this group
(31,32). For these reasons it is generally felt that they feed
primarily by seizing their prey on the surface and scavenging. It is
also generally believed that they frequently feed at night. The prey
items identified by Simons (04,05) corroborate those beliefs. Among
the fish, the Exocoetidae (flying fish) and Scombridae (mackeral) are
both pelagic species that would be available to the petrels on or near
the surface.
The Holocentridae (squirrel fish or soldier fish) and Mullidae
(goatfish) are found nearshore as adults but they both posess pelagic
juvenile stages that frequent the surface layers, especially at night.
The Myctophidae (lantern fish) and Sternoptychidae (hatchet fish) are
bathypelagic species that spend the daylight hours as deep as 3,500 m,
but often migrate to the surface layers at night. They would appear
to be ideal prey for dark-rumped petrels, since they are generally
small (less than 15 cm), and they both posess highly visible
photophores. Daily vertical migration is also a characteristic of
squid and the giant isopod, Anuropus, which suggests that the birds
are feeding on these species at night. The mantis shrimp may have
been obtained by scavenging, because these are primarily coastal
bottom-dwelling species. One adult regurgitated about a half dozen
spherical egg cases containing what appeared to be crustacean larvae.
The cases were about 0.5 cm in diameter and they were unusual in that
they were filled with orange oil very similar to the stomach oil of
the birds. Little is known about the stomach oil of petrels but it is
assumed to be of dietry origin and it appears to be an important
energy source for breeding birds (33). Crustacean egg cases of this
type may be an important source of stomach oil in the dark-rumped
petrel.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Dark-rumped petrels are not territorial. Maximum nesting
densities of up to 6.7 burrows per hectare occur along the west rim
of Haleakala Crater. Although some adjacent burrows are as close as
5 m, it is not uncommon to find individuals nesting hundreds of meters
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
from their closest neighbors. Individual burrows have been located
along the outer slope, which are over a kilometer from any other
active burrow (04,05).
Birds range throughout the central Pacific and may forage
1,000 km or more from their nesting colonies (04,05,27,28,29).
Sightings were primarily of solitary birds but Pitman noted that the
species often joined in mixed species foraging flocks.
PERIODICITY:
Dark-rumped petrels are active on their nesting colonies for
about nine months each year (04,05). They are strictly nocturnal over
land and are active on the colony from about one hour after sunset
until about one hour before sunrise. The nesting season extends from
mid-February until mid-November. A distinct pre-laying absence of
about two weeks occurs prior to egg-laying, which begins in late
April. The incubation period is 55 days. Chicks begin hatching in
late June, and the nestling period extends into early November.
Non-breeding birds return to sea in early August, and all birds remain
at sea from early November to early February.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
During the non-breeding season dark-rumped petrels range
throughout the central Pacific (04,05,27,28,29).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Cover/shelter requirements are minimal. All they really need is
a substrate suitable for burrowing and a predator free environment.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Dark-rumped petrels require stable soil-covered slopes or other
steeply sloped substrates that are suitable for burrowing. They will
also use talus slopes or other naturally irregular terrains
containing cavities suitable for nest chambers. They can nest in a
variety of environments from rain forest to sub-alpine rocky cliffs
and will breed successfully as long as they are protected from
predators (04,05,21).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The dark-rumped petrel is an intensely K-selected species,
characterized by a low reproductive rate, delayed maturity, and long
life (04,05,21). Pair bonds are monogamous and birds generally pair
for life. They do not start breeding until they are about six years
old and they may not breed every year. Only a single egg is laid each
breeding season and that egg is not replaced if it is lost. Adult
birds may live for 30 years or longer.
PARENTAL CARE:
The incubation period of the dark-rumped petrel is 55 days.
Chicks are semi-precocial and are only brooded by their parents for a
few days after hatching. Chicks remain in the burrow for about 4
months after hatching and are visited briefly and fed by their parents
throughout that period. Chicks fledge at about 110 days, and, at that
point, they are independent of their parents. Chicks spend the first
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
several years of their life at sea (04,05,21).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Dark-rumped petrel populations are currently limited by predation
at the nesting colonies. The primary predators are mongooses
(Herpestes auropunctatus), feral cats (Felis catus), and rats (Rattus
sp.). Adult survival is estimated to range from 0.80 - 0.93 depending
on the level of predation. Juvenile survival is estimated at 0.80.
Reproductive success (chicks fledged/eggs laid) ranges from
0.35 - 0.72. Breeding frequency is estimated at 0.89. The sex ratio
is even. The recovery rate of the remaining populations will be slow
even under optimal conditions. Under optimum conditions the current
population (430 breeding pair) would be expected to double in
approximately 100 years (04,05,21).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
No significant species interrelationships are known.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Reducing Urban Light Radiation
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The limited historical evidence available indicates that
dark-rumped petrels were once abundant throughout the main Hawaiian
Islands. Early reports of their distribution and numbers are scarce,
but they all reflect large pre-historic populations. Perkins (08)
noted that the bird was "common in many parts of the islands, nesting
in the high mountains, where it forms large colonies." Munro (09)
commented on the populations on Moloka'i stating, "I was told that on
its arrival at Pelekunu Valley, Molokai, in the evening it darkened
the sky." Bryan (10,11) collected birds in the upper valleys of
Moloka'i in the early 1900's, and Banko (12) discussed a report of the
birds nesting at lower elevations, including Makuho'oniki, a small
offshore islet. Munro (13) collected specimens of the dark-rumped
petrel and observed birds flying inland in the evening on Kaua'i in
1895, and he also described several nesting colonies on Lana'i.
Evidence of nesting colonies on Maui is scarce but Banko (12)
discussed several reports of birds nesting on the lower slopes of
Haleakala near Olinda and Polipoli. Henshaw (14) was told by natives
on the island of Hawai'i that the birds formerly "nested in great
numbers in the lava between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa." Thus, although
reports of the birds did not appear until almost a century after the
arrival of the first European explorers, sizeable populations of the
birds may still have existed on all of the main islands except O'ahu
at the turn of the century. It is now clear that the dark-rumped
petrel was once a common breeding seabird on O'ahu (15,16), and its
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
history on that island is indicative of the decline of the species
throughout Hawai'i.
It is generally believed that the first Polynesians arrived in
Hawai'i about 1500 years ago. Until recently it has also been
generally accepted that the Polynesians had little impact on native
ecosystems. Ornithologists as well as biogeographers have almost
universally assumed that the early explorers, led by Cook in 1778,
found Hawai'i in a near pristine state.
Most ornithologists have assumed that the native avifauna did not
begin to decline until after the arrival of the Europeans, and that
this decline was caused by a combination of factors including
predation by introduced mammals (17), disease (18), and habitat
destruction (19). A reexamination of the historical evidence, and
archeological research by Olson and James (15,16) now suggests that
the Hawaiian ecosystem was substantially modified by the prehistoric
Polynesian populations and that a sizable segment of the native
avifauna was exterminated in the process. The Polynesians imported a
variety of predators including dogs (Canis familiaris), pigs (Sus
scrofa), and the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), and they extensively
modified the native plant communities by cultivating taro (Colocasia
esculent), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), and bananas (Musa
xparadisiaca). In addition, Olson and James (15) have pointed to
evidence that the Polynesians were responsible for converting large
areas of forest habitat into grassland by burning. The impact of
these activities on the endemic avifauna was substantial. Olson and
James (15,16) have now identified at least 39 extinct species of
endemic land birds in Hawai'i, and they propose "it is likely that
well over half of the species of endemic land birds that were present
in the archipelago before the arrival of Polynesians became extinct
between that event and European contact." There is evidence that the
seabird populations were decimated as well. Recent archeological work
suggests that dark-rumped petrels were abundant on all of the main
Hawaiian Islands, including Oahu. It now appears that the Oahu
population was exterminated prior the the arrival of Europeans. Olson
and James (15,16) also found evidence that Audubon's shearwaters
(Puffinus lherminieri), Bonin petrels (Pterodroma hypoleuca) and a
previously unknown Pterodroma species once bred on the main islands.
All of the birds disappeared before the historic period.
Grazing by introduced feral pigs and goats (Capra hircus) has
also altered the vegetation associated with the volcanic crater on
Maui, making the ground cover more sparse. This has probably been
beneficial to the petrel as it has reduced cover for predators on the
nesting grounds. However, in more recent years, efforts have begun to
remove feral animals from these locations and the vegetative cover may
be increasing, allowing for more successful nest predation.
Although the dark-rumped petrel is now restricted to breeding
sites at high elevations, it may have once bred much closer to sea
level. Munro (07) reported that the species could be found at
elevations of between 460 and 1520 m, and Banko (12) proposed that
birds may have also nested on off-shore islets near sea level.
Indeed, most of Olson and James' (15,16) archeological sites were
located near sea level, and it seems likely that some birds were
breeding in the vicinity. It now appears likely that most dark-rumped
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
petrels nesting at lower elevations were exterminated prior to
European contact. These populations may have been reduced as a result
of predation by the dogs and pigs that the Polynesians brought with
them, and by hunting of the birds by the Polynesians. Henshaw (14)
reported "It is said that years ago the nestlings of the 'Ua'u were
considered a great delicacy, and were tabooed for the exclusive use of
the chiefs. Natives were dispatched each season to gather the young
birds which they did by inserting into the burrows a long stick and
twisting it into the down of the young which then were easily pulled
to the surface." It appears that both adults and nestlings were
harvested on a large scale, and the remains of dark-rumped petrels
have been found in abundance in middens and lava tubes throughout the
islands (15).
Thus, the decline of the dark-rumped petrel populations in
Hawai'i may have been well underway by the time the first Europeans
arrived two centuries ago. The introduction of cats, black rats
(Rattus rattus), Norway rats (R. norwegicus), disease-carrying
mosquitos, and, in 1883, mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) certainly
accelerated the decline so that the birds survive today in only a few
high-elevation sites. The predators that threaten the remaining
populations today probably represent only a small portion of the
decimating influences that have reduced the populations over the last
1,500 years. This pattern of decline has been repeated in populations
of gadfly petrels all over the world, so that today only a few species
with healthy, undisturbed populations survive. The combined effects
of hunting by man and predation by introduced mammals have driven many
populations to the brink of extinction. Like the dark-rumped petrel,
many of those populations are surviving outside of their preferred
habitats, at high elevations, or on remote offshore islets; see
reviews by Bourne (20) and Harris (01).
The primary present day threat to the remaining populations
is predation by introduced mammals. Mortality from light-related
groundings in urban areas has occurred to a minor degree with only a
few juveniles being grounded each year. However, in the future urban
light-related groundings may become a more serious threat as urban
development expands, especially on Maui (04,05,21).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaiian Dark-rumped Petrel
and Newell's Manx Shearwater Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Portland, OR. 57 pp.
Efforts to protect the Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel have
concentrated on managing the bird's breeding grounds in Haleakala
Crater. The species is threatened principally by cats and mongooses
that wander up from lower elevations and prey upon petrel eggs,
chicks, and adults. The prime objective of the recovery plan for the
dark-rumped petrel is to provide long-term protection for the colony
at Haleakala. This goal will require the development of less
expensive methods to eradicate predators.
The Recovery Plan recommends:
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
1) Prevent losses from direct (human) disturbance in or near nesting
habitat through the government agencies that manage the lands by
reviewing land use variances applications, zoning laws and ordinances.
2) Control introduced and feral predators such as rats, cats, and
mongooses. The introduction of new predators must be prevented.
3) The practice of dumping highly toxic wastes in the ocean should
be discouraged to protect pelagic feeding habitats.
4) If populations increase there may be a need to utilize a salvage
project to rescue (and rehabilitate if needed) birds misdirected by
urban lighting and to reduce and/or prevent unnecessary upward
radiation from urban lights.
5) Establish additional nesting colonies through the collection of
wild eggs and transplanting them to surrogate nests, transplanting
full grown nestlings, or other means. Maintain a sperm bank.
6) Encourage public awareness.
The Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel benefits from having "all its
eggs in the right basket" - the jurisdiction of the U.S. National Park
Service. The Park Service has funded and in other ways supported
intensive research of dark-rumped petrels. This research brought to
light important information on life-history parameters of petrels, and
it identified the primary source of mortality. Trapping predators
around readily accessible breeding colonies began in 1966 and has
achieved considerable success. In 1986, the Park Service applied to
expand trapping beyond the western rim of Haleakala Crater to include
the entire Crater district. This action will protect breeding sites
and facilitate expansion of the petrel's population. The Fish and
Wildlife Service is conducting a research program to develop more
effective methods for controlling mongoose populations. A program for
recovering disoriented fledglings, similar to the program developed on
Kaua'i for the Newell's shearwater, was initiated for the dark-rumped
petrel on Maui. Few petrels were turned in by the public, indicating
that nocturnal fallout of fledglings is a minor phenomenon on Maui.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Harris, M.P. 1970. The biology of an endangered species, the
dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia) in the Galapagos
Islands. Condor 72:76-84.
02 Alexander, W.B. 1954. Birds of the Ocean. Putman, New York.
03 Tuck, G.S. and H. Heinzel. 1978. A field guide to the seabirds of
Britain and the world. Collins, London.
04 Simons, T.R. 1983. Biology and conservation of the endangered
Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis).
Nat. Park Serv., CPSU, Univ. of Washington, CPSU/UW83-2, Seattle.
05 Simons, T.R. 1985. Biology and behavior of the endangered
Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel. Condor 87:229-245.
06 Shallenberger, R.J., ed. 1978. Hawaii's birds. Hawaii Audubon
Society, Honolulu, HI.
07 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co, Honolulu, HI.
08 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Fauna Hawaiiensis. Cambridge Univ. Press.
09 Munro, G.C. 1955. Hawaii's birds and their homes: How to save
them from extinction, Parts VII and VIII. Elepaio 16:28-30.
10 Bryan, W.A. 1908. Some birds of Molokai. Occ. Pap. B.P. Bishop
Mus. 4(2):43-86.
11 Bryan, W.A. 1914. Hunting the Uau on Molokai. Mid-Pacific Mag.
8:152-157.
12 Banko, W.E. 1980. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report #CPSU/UH 026/10.
13 Munro, G.C. 1941. Birds of Hawaii and adventures in bird study.
The dark-rumped petrel. Elepaio 2:24-27.
14 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds on the Hawaiian Possessions, with notes
on their habitats. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu. 146 pp.
15 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: Evidence for wholesale extinction by may before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
16 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C. 59 pp.
17 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of the factors,
particularly Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of
endemic forest birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Science
31:109-133.
18 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian Avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
19 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
20 Bourne, W.P.R. 1965. The missing petrels. Bull Brit. Ornith.
Club 85:97-105.
21 Simmons, T.R. 1984. A population model of the endangered Hawaiian
dark-rumped petrel. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 48(4):1065-1076.
22 Kepler, C.B. and M. Scott. 1980. Unpubl. data. U.S. Fish &
Wildl. Serv., SE Field Stat., School For. Resour., Univ. of
Georgia, Athens 30602.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
23 Richardson, R. and D.H. Woodside. 1954. Rediscovery of the
nesting of the dark-rumped petrel in the Hawaiian Islands. Condor
56(6):323-327.
24 Hirai, L.T. 1978. Possible dark-rumped petrel colony on Lanai,
Hawaii. Elepaio 38(7):71-72.
25 Shallenberger, R.J. 1974. Field notes. Elepaio 35:18-20.
26 Conant, S. 1980. Recent records of the 'Ua'u (dark-rumped petrel)
and the 'A'o (Newell's shearwater) in Hawaii. Elepaio 41:1-3.
27 King, W.B. 1967. Seabirds of the tropical Pacific Ocean.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
28 King, W.B. 1970. The trade wind zone oceanography pilot study.
Part VII: Observations of sea birds, March 1964 to June 1965.
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Sci. Report, Fisheries, No. 586.
29 Pitman, R.L. 1982. Distribution and foraging habits of
dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia) in the eastern tropical
Pacific. Bull. Pacific Seabird Group No. 9.
30 Cline, M.G. 1955. Soil survey of the territory of Hawaii. U.S.
Dept. Agriculture, Soil Survey Series, No. 25.
31 Ashmole, N.P. and M.J. Ashmole. 1967. Comparative feeding ecology
of sea birds of a tropical oceanic island. Peabody Mus. Nat.
Hist., Yale Univ. Bull. 24:1-131.
32 Warham, J. 1977. Wing loading, wing shapes, and flight
capabilities of Procellariiformes. New Zealand J. Zool. 4:73-83.
33 Simons, T.R. and G.C. Whittow. 1984. Energetics of growth in the
dark-rumped petrel. Pages 159-182. IN: Seabird energetics. G.C.
Whittow, ed. Plenum, New York.
34 Sincock, J.L. 1979. Pers. comm. P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
35 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Checklist of North American
birds. 6th ed. Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
36 Kepler, C.B. 1980. Unpubl. data. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., SE
Field Stat., School For. Resour., Univ. of Georgia, Athens 30602.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Pitman, R.L. 1982. Distribution and foraging habits of
dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia) in the eastern tropical
Pacific. Bull. Pacific Seabird Group No. 9.
02 Shallenberger, R.J. 1974. Field notes. Elepaio 35:18-20.
03 Conant, S. 1980. Recent records of the 'Ua'u (dark-rumped petrel)
and the 'A'o (Newell's shearwater) in Hawaii. Elepaio 41:1-3.
04 Simons, T.R. 1983. Biology and conservation of the endangered
Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis).
Nat. Park Serv., CPSU, Univ. of Washington, CPSU/UW83-2, Seattle.
05 Simons, T.R. 1985. Biology and behavior of the endangered
Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel. Condor 87:229-245.
06 King, W.B. 1967. Seabirds of the tropical Pacific Ocean.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
07 King, W.B. 1970. The trade wind zone oceanography pilot study.
Part VII: Observations of sea birds, March 1964 to June 1965.
08 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Fauna Hawaiiensis. Cambridge Univ. Press.
09 Munro, G.C. 1955. Hawaii's birds and their homes: How to save
them from extinction, Parts VII and VIII. Elepaio 16:28-30.
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species PETREL, DARK-RUMPED, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101028
Date 14 MAR 96
10 Bryan, W.A. 1908. Some birds of Molokai. Occ. Pap. B.P. Bishop
Mus. 4(2):43-86.
11 Bryan, W.A. 1914. Hunting the Uau on Molokai. Mid-Pacific Mag.
8:152-157.
12 Banko, W.E. 1980. History of endemic Hawaiian birds. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report #CPSU/UH 026/10.
13 Munro, G.C. 1941. Birds of Hawaii and adventures in bird study.
The dark-rumped petrel. Elepaio 2:24-27.
14 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds on the Hawaiian Possessions, with notes
on their habitats. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu. 146 pp.
15 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands: Evidence for wholesale extinction by may before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
16 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C. 59 pp.
17 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Scientific Report, Fisheries,
No. 586.
18 Kepler, C.B. and M. Scott. 1980. Unpubl. data. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., SE Field Sta., School For. Resour., Univ. of GA,
Athens 30602.
19 Kepler, C.B. 1980. Unpublished data. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv.,
SE Field Station, School For. Resour., Univ. of GA, Athens 30602.
20 Sincock, J.L. 1979. Pers. comm. P.O. Box P, Uniontown, PA 15401.
21 Simmons, T.R. 1984. A population model of the endangered Hawaiian
dark-rumped petrel. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 48(4):1065-1076.
22 Baldwin, P.H. and D.H. Hubbard. 1949. The Hawaiian dark-rumped
petrel reappears on Hawaii. Condor 51:231-232.
23 Richardson, R. and D.H. Woodside. 1954. Rediscovery of the
nesting of the dark-rumped petrel in the Hawaiian Islands. Condor
56(6):323-327.
24 Hirai, L.T. 1978. Possible dark-rumped petrel colony on Lanai,
Hawaii. Elepaio 38(7):71-72.
References - 3