(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - GOOSE and HAWAIIAN;NENE
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - ANSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ANATIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - NESOCHEN,
SPECIES AND SSP - SANDVICENSIS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - NESOCHEN SANDVICENSIS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaiian Goose
Nesochen sandvicensis (Vigors, 1833)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Anseriformes FAMILY: Anatidae
The Hawaiian goose (nene) is a medium-sized, heavily barred,
grey-brown goose with a black face, head and nape of neck (01). It
has buff-colored feathers on the cheek and neck in a unique deeply
furrowed pattern. The bill is black, high at the base and flattened
towards the tip (01,02,04). The tail is solid black, with white upper
coverts and a white underside; retrices and primaries are black (02,
03,04). A black band appears to separate the throat from the breast
(02). The breast is pale brown, the remainder of the body grey-brown
barred with whitish-buff (04). Ganders weigh 2.18 - 2.29 kg (4 lbs
13 oz - 5 lbs); geese weigh 1.8 - 1.98 kg (4 lbs - 4 lbs 6 oz), and
vary in length between 55.9 and 71 cm (22 and 28 in) (01,03). Nene
stand approximately 50 cm (20 inches) high, and usually stand more
upright than geese of a similar body weight (03). The average
measurements of males are: Head, 94 mm (3.7 in); bill, 39 mm
(1.5 in); leg, 85 mm (3.4 in); wing, 378 mm (14.9 in). The averages
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
for females are: Head, 89 mm (3.5 in); bill, 37 mm (1.4 in); leg,
78 mm (3.1 in); wing, 361 mm (14.2 in) (03). The tail on ganders
measures between 147 and 158 mm (5.7-6.1 in), and on geese, 144 to
151 mm (5.6-5.9 in) (05). The feet are black and the web of the foot
is reduced (53% of middle-toe length) compared to other similar
species of geese (02). The foot pads are thicker than those of
related species, and nene have elongated toes and large nails (02,03).
The bones and musculature of the wing structure are reduced
approximately 16% when compared with similar geese (03).
Nicholas Vigors, in 1833, first described the nene and originally
assigned the name Bernicla sandwichensis to this species (03).
Salvadori (1895) placed the Hawaiian goose in the genus Nesochen typed
by the designation, Anser sandvicensis Vigors (06). Some authors as
recently as 1983 combine this genus with Branta (i.e., Branta
sandvicensis (01,03). However, it is generally agreed now (06) that
the proper designation is Nesochen sandvicensis Vigors, 1833. The
earliest known specimen taken from the wild was collected in 1840 and
now rests in the U.S. National Museum in Washington, D.C. A captive
nene which died and was originally placed in the collection of T.C.
Eyton, was passed to Canon H.B. Tristram and then was purchased by the
Liverpool Free Public Museums in 1869. This specimen remains in
Liverpool (03). Type specimens were named in the following (06):
(1) Genus Nesochen Salvadori
Nesochen Salvadori, 1895, Cat. Birds Br. Mus. 27, pp. xii,
81, 126. Type, by original designation, Anser sandvicensis,
Vigors.
(2) Nesochen sandvicensis (Vigors). Hawaiian Goose [175.1]
Anser sandvicensis Vigors, 1833, List. Anim. Garden Zoo.
Soc., ed. 3, p.4 (Hawaiian Islands).
Specimens for study are available at the University of California
at Berkeley; Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Bernice P.
Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI; and State of Hawai'i Div. of Forestry and
Wildlife, Honolulu, HI. Photographs, drawings, descriptions, and egg
specimens are also available at the Div. of Forestry and Wildlife (07,
08). Various authors have provided excellent narrative descriptions
(01,03,04,05).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
Ceremonial/Cultural
Ornamental
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawaiian goose (Nesochen sandvicensis) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found. Critical
Habitat has not been designated.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The Hawaiian goose, Nesochen sandvicensis, is protected by the
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) (50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for cooperation in the law
enforcement/protection of this subspecies with
applicable State and Federal laws on public land under
their control. Also responsible for cooperation in
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered, Nongame Bird (listed as Branta
sandvicensis),
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Ch. 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Hawaiian goose, Nesochen sandvicensis, is listed in Appendix
I of CITES. It is also listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red Data
Book, and is listed by the U.S. and the Annex to the Convention on
Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere
(1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Ancient Hawaiians and 19th century market hunters hunted nene
(Hawaiian goose) for meat and feathers (for capes). Nene were also
hunted for sport. Today, poachers still take a few birds. The
species is now valued as the State Bird of Hawai'i, a living symbol of
the many things of Hawai'i swept away or challenged by modern times.
Nene are one of the attractions drawing local and visiting sight-seers
to Hawai'i's national parks. Some geese are kept as pets or as
ornamental fowl.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Original listing
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
76/05/05:41 FR 18618/18624 - Proposed rules for captive breeding
77/02/22:42 FR 10462/10488 - Ruling on CITES with listing, Append. I
78/03/06:43 FR 09168/09172 - Proposed rules, request info., CITES spp.
78/05/03:43 FR 19180/19191 - Proposed rules, request info., CITES spp.
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Status review
85/07/01:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Herbaceous Rangeland
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Mixed Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
Nonforested Wetland
Bare Exposed Rock
Mixed Barren Land
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Palustrine SS3
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Nene (Hawaiian goose) are most commonly associated with arid
lava flows above or below dense humid forests (02,11), mesophytic
grasslands, open forests (03,17), and dry sub-alpine scrub lands or
savannahs (11,18). They are known to nest on the edges of mesic to
wet forest "kipukas" (islands of vegetation surrounded by barren lava
flows) (18), open or closed scrub/shrub lands, grasslands, and
mixtures of the two (14). Nests are usually placed where vegetation
is sparse, regardless of vegetation association (19). When more
widely distributed in the past, it utilized drier lowland areas during
the fall-winter breeding season, moving to the wetter uplands during
the summer months seeking greener vegetation (09,20). Now, the only
documented seasonal differences in habitat occur during the
non-breeding period (in the summer) when nene move daily between
barren lava flows on Mauna Loa to grazed pasture lands on the
mid-level slopes of Mauna Kea on the Island of Hawai'i (16,19).
Vagrant birds occasionally occur in lowland habitats including
pastures, stock ponds, and rural areas on both Hawai'i and Maui (18,
21,22,23). They are also known to frequent golf courses and ranch
facilities (08,10). Specific habitat types include: (1) mixed exotic
grassland/short lowland scrub dominated by Senna sp., Ipomea sp.,
Lantana sp., Waltheria sp., and Melinis sp.; (2) scrub forest
(Metrosideros) with native shrubs (Styphelia sp., Vaccincium sp.) and
lichens; (3) mixed grasslands with native shrubs (Coprosma sp.,
Dodonaea sp., Styphelia sp., Vaccinium sp.), and scattered trees
(Acacia sp., Sophora sp., Metrosideros sp.); (4) native scrubland
(Coprosma sp., Styphelia sp., Vaccinium sp.) on lava flows; and (5) on
vegetated cinder cones (14).
Aquatic habitat is not required, but nene are found near potholes
and sumps created in upland areas where well-decomposed lava soils
become super-saturated or in man-made ponds developed for them in
sanctuaries (08,11,16,17). Copulation takes place on land (unusual
for a Branta-related species), on shorelines of ponds, or in shallow
water (01,03,08).
Environmental parameters for nene have not been described in
detail. Generally, temperatures in upland habitats on the Island of
Habitat Associations - 1 Hawai'i (Kulani station) average 20 to 63 degrees (deg) F (-6.6 to
16.2 deg C) and on Maui (Haleakala) average 33 to 51 deg F (0.5 to
10.5 deg C) annually (24). The average annual rainfall in the primary
range of the nene varies between 20 and 100 inches (51-254 cm) on
Hawai'i and 40-75 inches (102-191 cm) on Maui (24). At sanctuaries on
Hawai'i, a low annual rainfall of 18 inches (46 cm) and a high annual
rainfall of 130 inches (332 cm) were recorded in the 1960's (03).
Nene frequent diverse physiographic types including dissected and
undissected uplands, lava ramps, cones, and craters and lava flows
consisting of pahoehoe and a'a types (03,24). Generalized soil orders
include Entisols (poor soils on volcanic ash), Histosols (organic
soils on young forested lava), and Inceptisols (soils on a thin mantle
of ash) (24). Nest sites occur in shallow rocky soils with exposed
pahoehoe lava or highly exposed ash deposits in Hawai'i Volcanoes
National Park (14). Other parameters of nene habitat including slope,
soil texture, moisture, or profile, and percentage ground cover,
canopy closure or cover height have not been studied.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
HERBIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Moss
General
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Deciduous Shrubs-Leaves/Twigs
General Arthropods
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Poaceae
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Deciduous Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Bottomland
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
G Human Association: Farm ponds
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The Hawaiian goose (or nene) feeds exclusively on vegetation
utilizing green leafy material, fruits, and seeds. They are not
known to utilize parts of trees but, rather, favor grasses and sedges
(43%), herbs (28%), and shrubs (29%). The most important grasses
include Deschampsia nubigena, crabgrass (Digitaria violascens), redtop
(Agrostis alba), and mountain pill (Panicum tenuifolium) and Yorkshire
fog (Holcus lanatus) (14,17,25). Commonly eaten sedges are Carex
wahuenisis and Carex macloviana. Herbaceous plants such as kukaenene
(Coprosma ernodeoides) and popolo (Solanum nodiflorum) and shrubs
including 'ohelo (Vaccinium reticulatum) and thimbleberry (Rubus
rosaefolius) are important to the nene because of the succulent fruits
they provide. Other key food plants are gosmore (Hypochaeris
radicata) (leaves, buds, flowers), and sow thistle (Sonchus
oleraceus). Mosses, lichens, and arthropods have been detected in
small quantities in droppings from adult nene but may have been of
accidental occurrence. The food of goslings is unknown. Pukiawe
(Styphelia tameiameiae) makes up a high pct. of the diet (22 pct.
occurrence in one sampling), and the pits may serve as a grinding
agent (17). A variety of big-seeded grasses, plants which provide
succulent fruiting bodies, and green leafy vegetation, particularly
those plants listed above, are probably essential to the survival of
the nene, although none plays a role as limiting factor (17). Other
plants known to be consumed include:
Axonopus affinis Melinis minutiflora
Bidens sp. Oxalis corniculata
Bulbostylis capillaris Rumex acetosella
Cirsium vulgare Silene gallica
Cyperus polystachyos Sisyrinchium acre
Digitaria pruriens Sporobolis africanus
Gnaphalium sandwicensium Sporobolis capensis
Festuca megalura Verbena litoralis
Luzula compestris
In the past, when nene were found from sea level to the upper
vegetated slopes, a seasonal pattern of food utilization was apparent.
They sought the low elevations in the winter and spring seeking out
new green growth brought on by the rains. In the summer and fall, as
these food sources dried up, they returned to the uplands seeking
greens and fruits (17). This pattern may now be limited to the
Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park where there have been recent
introductions to lowland areas, as for the most part nene are now
restricted to upland slopes. The only known seasonal movement (of
post-breeding flocks) from the Mauna Loa lava flows to the Puu O'o
Ranch pastures in the summer may be to utilize green food including
grasses (16,19).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Little is known of the home range or territorial behavior of the
nene. Breeding territories are established in kipukas (islands of
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
vegetation surrounded by barren lava flows) because they afford
nesting cover with a nearby food supply. Aggressive behavior in
captivity during the nesting period suggests that in the wild, nene
defend nest sites (03,19). Nene are known to return to the same
general location to nest each year (19) and have a marked homing
instinct as evidenced by the return of released birds to their place
of captivity (25).
PERIODICITY:
Periodicity has not been studied, but nene feed more in the
morning and late afternoon and can be considered diurnal in habit (04,
08). They are less active and more sedentary during the nesting
period, but travel significant distances (up to 24 km (15 mi) daily)
during the non-breeding (summer) period (25).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
This species is non-migratory. Movement between islands as a
natural phenomenon has not been documented. However, on at least one
occasion birds reared in captivity on the Island of Hawai'i, released
in Haleakala on Maui, returned to the pens in which they were raised,
a flight distance of 113 air km (70 mi) (25).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
During nesting periods nene frequently use kipukas where
vegetation is available for concealing nests (03,25). When moulting,
they are known to be secretive, seeking brushy areas to hide (25).
Groups of half-grown goslings encountered on open lava flows may seek
lava cracks to escape detection (08). Additional cover or shelter
requirements have not been described.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Nene often favor kipukas as nesting sites, although successful
nests have been recorded in other environments including sparsely
vegetated lava flows, ash deposits, scrub-grassland, and pasture edges
(01,03,14,19,25). Nests are on the ground and are constructed by
scooping a shallow bowl-shaped depression in the litter, usually under
a brush or clump of vegetation (Styphelia sp., Dodonaea sp., Vaccinium
sp., Coprosma sp., Sadlaria sp., stunted Metrosideros sp.), and are
lined with down from the adult (01,14,25). Goslings may be taken out
on open lava or hidden in cracks during the rearing period (08,26).
Reproductive site requirements in the wild (display, breeding,
nursery) have not been more fully described than this.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The breeding season of the nene is the reverse of Branta sp.,
being triggered by decreasing day length. Although eggs have been
recorded as early as September and as late as April, generally the
single nesting period extends from October through March (01,03,11,
25). Although the goose may lay in the first year of her life, her
eggs are usually infertile. Optimum breeding years for females are
age 3-15 years; for males, 1-12 years. True courtship begins in the
second year at which time full pair bonds usually occur. Nene mate
for life. Copulation takes place on land (unusual for a
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
Branta-related species), on shorelines of ponds, or in shallow water
(01,03,08). Courtship display begins with the male preceding the
female, showing its white under tail. Precopulatory behavior consists
of head-dipping, extension of the neck and head along the ground,
followed by a pulling back. The goose and gander synchronize these
movements until the female goes prone for copulation.
Only the female constructs the nest and incubates the eggs, the
gander's role being that of a sentry and defender (03,25). The
incubation period is 30 days (range 29-31), and from 3-5 eggs are
normally laid in captivity, although fertile clutches of six eggs have
been known (01,25). The egg is creamy white, weighs from 120 to
180 grams (4.2-6.3 oz), and measures on the average 83 mm x 50 mm
(3.3 x 1.9 in). Most of this information is based on information
derived from captive observations (03). Clutch size is generally
lower in the wild, ranging from 3.10 (14) to 3.25 (15,16,17,21).
Re-nesting as a result of "pulling" clutches or young broods (for
mechanical incubation) in captivity is easily achieved, but evidence
of multiple clutches in the wild is meager (01,03,14,25).
PARENTAL CARE:
The gander guards the nest site, usually from a nearby promontory
giving solicitous alarm calls when necessary. The goose has been
known to direct observers by "sneaking" away in a low posture, leaving
the nest to its natural cover (25). Both parents are solicitous
towards goslings, guarding them against harm (03). In captivity,
their habit is to keep them in a group between them (08). Nene have a
long brooding period; in the wild the young remain with the parents
until the next breeding season (03). Adults are flightless for 4-6
weeks, usually attaining flight at the same time as the goslings (11).
As soon as the young are able to fly, family groups begin flocking in
for leaving the breeding site for feeding areas (25). The goslings
are able to fly when 10 or 12 weeks of age (03). Little else of
parental behavior has been described.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Population dynamics have not been studied systematically,
although nest success, brood survival, banded/unbanded ratios,
population estimates, and mortality factors have been examined locally
(12,13,14,15,16,21,22,23). Natural population trends are complicated
by periodic releases of captive birds. Survival rates of
captive-reared and released birds, based on records of banded birds
(on Maui), varied from 80% after the first year to 10% eleven years
after release. In optimum years, under management, wild nene
populations have increased from 8 to 10 percent per year (13,15,16,21,
22,23). The annual rate of production for individual pairs of nene is
relatively low. In one study an average of 0.70 goslings per pair
were raised to adulthood (11). Egg fertility in the wild has varied
between 54%-86%, and nesting success in some studies averaged 66 pct.
(15,16,21,22,23). Mortality rates for adults are probably low but are
high for young (11). Sex ratios have not been studied, but
considering monogamy as the rule, it must be close to 1:1 (08).
Longevity in captivity has varied from a maximum of 16.5 years at
Pohakuloa on Hawai'i to 17.7 years at Slimbridge in England (03). A
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
famous captive gander is reported to have lived 42 years in Cleres,
France (03,05). Banded birds released from captivity have lived at
least 14 years in the wild (15,16). Current limiting factors include
lack of optimum habitat, predation, droughts, severe weather, and
perhaps competition for food (e.g., turkeys [Meleagris gallopavo],
pheasant [Phasianus colchicus]). Poor nutrition apparently affects
productivity (07,10,11,15,16,21,22,23). It has been determined that
under present circumstances, recovery of wild populations on a
sustained yield basis is not possible without continuous releases of
captive-reared birds (10,11,12). Current management strategies to
improve prospects for recovery include periodic releases of captive
birds, intensive localized habitat improvement in sanctuaries,
predator control, minimizing disturbance at nest sites, and
acquisition of permanent sanctuaries (11).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Except for adverse interspecific relationships with predators
(i.e., mongoose [Herpestes auropunctatus], feral cat [Felis catus],
feral dog [Canis familiaris], feral pig [Sus scrofa], and rodents
[Rattus spp.]) and competition for food (game birds), the nene has no
direct causal relationship with another species. Its present survival
as a species depends on man and his efforts.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Two calls are obvious: A low "nay-nay", used when content and
among other birds, and a strident cry when communicating
territoriality. Goslings have "pleasure," "greeting," "sleepy," and
"distress" calls. Aggressive displays involve bending the neck,
lowering the posture, quivering the neck feathers, calling, or
hissing.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Sport Hunting/Fishing
Existing Sport Hunting/Fishing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The early Hawaiians hunted and captured Hawaiian geese (nene) for
food and may have utilized them for feather capes. Intrusions into
upland habitats for gathering sandalwood may have been a disturbing
factor. With the settlement of the islands came hunting with
firearms, the development of ranching, construction of resort on
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
coastal areas and military access roads into the uplands that impacted
directly and indirectly on nene and their habitats (forest
alteration). Hunting seasons naively were set during the traditional
(for North America) fall season, which was the peak of the nene
breeding season. Introduced livestock, including cattle, horses,
sheep, goats and pigs altered the natural habitat. Introduced
predators such as the mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) and rats
(Rattus sp.) preyed directly on adults, young (which have protracted
flightless periods), and eggs. Introduced game birds and the mynah
(Acridotheres tristis) provided competition for food organisms (01,03,
04,09). Although nene once ranged to sea level (09), human alteration
of these habitats, progressively upslope, has forced nene into
marginal upland habitats (10). Present threats to its survival
include poaching; predation by feral cats (Felis catus), feral pigs
(Sus scrofa), feral dogs (Canis familiaris), and mongoose; and habitat
(vegetation) alteration by feral goats, sheep, pigs, and man. Poor
nutrition during breeding seasons as a result of droughts has also
been suggested as a reason for poor production of young (10,11).
The nene will not survive in Hawai'i under present circumstances
without continuous releases of captive-reared birds to the wild on
Maui and Hawai'i (10,12,13). Future threats will continue to include
unscrupulous shooting, predation, habitat disturbance by feral
animals, and lack of optimum habitat for reproduction and brood
survival (01,03,08,10,13). Intensive management (releases of captive
birds, predator control, artificial feeding, law enforcement) will be
required in the future to prevent losses from exceeding the
recruitment (08,10,11,15,16). Without research into techniques for
the control of predators, food habits as related to nutritional needs,
genetic modeling, population modeling, and nesting/post-nesting
studies, there will be insufficient knowledge to reverse present
trends and develop self-sustaining wild populations (10).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Nene (Hawaiian Goose) Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 62 pp.
The Hawaiian goose (nene) has been intensively managed since
1949, when the Nene Restoration Project, initiated by the then
Territory of Hawai'i, established a captive breeding program at
Pohakuloa. Annual releases of captive-reared nene on Maui and Hawai'i
have given rise to wild flocks on those islands. Despite some
successful reproduction in the wild, natural recruitment appears
insufficient to sustain the wild population, making continued releases
necessary. The nene recovery plan states as its primary objective the
establishment of "a population of 2,000 nene on Hawai'i and 250 on
Maui, well distributed in secure habitat and maintained exlusively by
natural reproduction so that the species may be delisted." Recovery
actions recommended by the recovery plan focus on "maintenance of the
wild population through annual releases of captive reared birds to
prevent further decline in numbers," and "research to determine
factors preventing recovery of the nene and appropriate management
actons." The plan also mentions:
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
1) Securing nene habitat (through cooperative agreement, easements,
lease, land exchange or purchase).
2) Minimizing loss of nests and broods due to human disturbance by
limiting human access to critical areas during breeding season.
3) Eliminating adult mortality through illegal shooting by educating
the public, enforcing legal penalties, restricting access to certain
areas, and prohibiting hunting of upland game birds in nene nesting
areas.
4) Improving habitat to promote survival of the nene, possibly
through improving food quality (nutrition) by fertilization/irrigation
of food sources, or through improving specific habitats to facilitate
predator control, etc.
5) Fostering public awareness of the nene's plight.
Management actions achieved or ongoing include (1) ongoing surveys
and studies of the nene conducted by the State and National Park
Service (NPS); (2) continued captive breeding and release of nene on
Maui and Hawai'i, again involving both State and NPS;
(3) establishment of nene sanctuaries on State and private lands on
Hawai'i (through cooperative agreements); (4) ongoing removal of feral
ungulates from nene habitat on NPS lands (this actions may improve
availability of nene foods and reduce predation by feral pigs, Sus
scrofa); (5) ongoing intensive studies of the mongoose (Herpestes
auropunctatus), conducted by the USFWS, with emphasis on developing
means of controlling this introduced predator; (6) partial funding by
the NPS of a program to trap predators throughout Haleakala Crater;
(7) hiring of a State veterinarian to maintain the health of the
captive flock; and (8) current construction of a new captive facility
at Olinda, Maui, to replace the old one at Pohakuloa.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Miller, A.H. 1937. Structural modifications in the Hawaiian
goose: A study in adaptive evolution. Univ. Calif. Press,
Berkeley.
03 Kear, J. and A.J. Berger. 1980. The Hawaiian goose: An
experiment in conservation. Buteo Books, Vermillion, CA.
04 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Selected vertebrate
endangered species of the seacoast of the United States - Hawaiian
goose (nene). FWS/OBS-80/01.26.
05 Delacour, J. 1954. The waterfowl of the world, Vol. 1. Country
Life Limited, London.
06 American Ornithologists Union. 1983. Checklist of North American
birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
07 Berger, A.J. March 12, 1985. Pers. comm. 1349 Kainui Drive,
Kailua, Oahu, HI 96734.
08 Walker, R.L. 1985. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street,
Kaneohe, HI 96744.
09 Baldwin, P.H. 1945. The Hawaiian goose, its distribution and
reduction in numbers. Condor 47:27-37.
10 Stone, C.P., R.L. Walker, J.M. Scott, and P.C. Banko. 1983.
Hawaiian goose research - where do we go from here? Elepaio
44(2):11-15.
11 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaiian Goose (Nene)
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
12 Devick, W.S. 1981. Status of the nene population on the island of
Hawaii between 1975 and 1980. Unpubl. ms. HI Dept. Land Nat.
Resour., Honolulu.
13 Devick, W.S. 1981. Status of the nene population on the island of
Maui between 1975 and 1980. Unpubl. ms. HI Dept. Land Nat.
Resour., Honolulu.
14 Banko, P.C. and D.A. Manuwal. 1982. Life history, ecology and
management of nene in Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala National
Parks. Natl. Park Serv., Western Region, San Francisco, CA.
15 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1983. Survey of nene
population on Maui. Job Progr. Rep., W-18-R-8, Job R-I-B, July 1,
1982 to July 31, 1983. 9 pp.
16 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1982. Evaluation of a
management program for the nene on the Island of Hawaii. Job
Progr. Rep., W-18-R-7, Job R-I-A (7-1-81 to 6-30-82). 9 pp.
17 Baldwin, P.H. 1947. Foods of the Hawaiian goose. Condor
47:108-121.
18 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology
No. 9. Cooper Ornithol. Soc. 431 pp.
19 Elder, W. and D. Woodside. 1958. Biology and management of the
Hawaiian goose. Pages 198-215. IN: Trans. 23rd. N. Amer. Wildl.
Conference. Wildl. Mgmt. Inst., Washington, D.C.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
20 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Fauna hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV,
vertebra. Cambridge University Press, London.
21 Hawaii Division of Fish and Game. 1979. Survey of the nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-4, Job R-I-D,
July 1, 1978 to June 30, 1979. 6 pp.
22 Hawaii Division of Fish and Game. 1978. Survey of the nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-3, Job R-I-D,
July 1, 1977 to June 30, 1978. 7 pp.
23 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1980. Survey of nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-I-D,
July 1, 1979 to June 30, 1980. 9 pp.
24 Armstong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. The University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu.
25 Anon. 1972. A report of the nene restoration program. Hawaii
Division of Fish and Game, Honolulu, HI.
26 Santos, N. March 15, 1985. Personal communication. P.O. Box 51,
Mountain View, HI 96771.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 Kear, J. and A.J. Berger. 1980. The Hawaiian goose: An
experiment in conservation. Buteo Books, Vermillion, CA.
03 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology
No. 9. 431 pp.
04 Armstong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. The University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu.
05 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Selected vertebrate
endangered species of the seacoast of the United States - Hawaiian
goose (nene). FWS/OBS-80/01.26.
06 Stone, C.P., R.L. Walker, J.M. Scott, and P.C. Banko. 1983.
Hawaiian goose research - where do we go from here? Elepaio
44(2):11-15.
07 Banko, P.C. and D.A. Manuwal. 1982. Life history, ecology and
management of nene in Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala National
Parks. National Park Serv., Western Region, San Francisco, CA.
08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaiian Goose (Nene)
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 62 pp.
09 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1983. Survey of nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-8, Job R-I-B,
July 1, 1982 to July 31, 1983. 9 pp.
10 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1980. Survey of nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-I-D,
July 1, 1979 to June 30, 1980. 9 pp.
11 Hawaii Division of Fish and Game. 1979. Survey of the nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-4, Job R-I-D,
July 1, 1978 to June 30, 1979. 6 pp.
12 Hawaii Division of Fish and Game. 1979. Survey of the nene
population on Maui. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-3, Job R-I-D,
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species GOOSE, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101029
Date 14 MAR 96
July 1, 1977 to June 30, 1978. 7 pp.
13 Medeiros, J. 1976. Map [Topographic]: Maui Island. Hand drawn,
distibution of nene. District Wildlife Biologist, Hawaii Division
of Fish and Game, Wailuku, Maui. 1:250,000, Colored.
14 Walker, R.L. 1985. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street,
Kaneohe, HI 96744.
15 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu, HI.
16 Baldwin, P.H. 1945. The Hawaiian goose, its distribution and
reduction in numbers. Condor 47:27-37.
17 Smith, J.D. 1952. The Hawaiian goose restoration program. J.
Wildl. Mgmt. 16(1):1-9.
18 Elder, W. and D. Woodside. 1958. Biology and management of the
Hawaiian goose. Pages 198-215. IN: Trans. 23rd. N. Amer. Wildl.
Conference. Wildl. Mgmt. Inst., Washington, D.C.
19 Anon. 1972. A report of the nene restoration program. Hawaii
Division of Fish and Game, Honolulu, HI.
20 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. 1982. Evaluation of a
management program for the nene on the Island of Hawaii. Job Prog.
Report, W-18-R-7, Job R-I-A, July 1, 1981 to June 30, 1982. 9 pp.
21 Santos, N. and R. Bachman. 1976. Map [Topographic]: Hawaii
Island. Hand drawn, distibution of nene. Biologist, Hawaii
Division of Fish and Game, Hilo, HI. 1:250,000, Colored.
22 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smiths. Inst. Press, Wash., D.C.
References - 3