(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - COOT, HAWAIIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - COOT and HAWAIIAN; ALAE KEO KEO; ALAE KEOKEO;ALAE-KEOKEO;AKAE-KEA; ALAI-AWI; ALAI-NU-KEA;'ALAE-KE'OKE'O; MUDHEN
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - GRUIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - RALLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - FULICA,
SPECIES AND SSP - AMERICANA, ALAI
SCIENTIFIC NAME - FULICA AMERICANA ALAI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Hawaiian Coot
Fulica americana alai Peale, 1848
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Gruiformes FAMILY: Rallidae
The Hawaiian coot differs from the American coot (Fulica
americana) in being smaller in size (14 inches), of a darker color,
and having a larger frontal shield and smaller bill. The sexes are
similar; greyish black except for white patches under the tail and a
white bill and shield. A few "morphs" occur with a red shield
contrasting sharply with the white of the bill and a dark ring near
the tip of the bill. The eye of the adult is red and the feet are
greyish-green and lobed (webless). Juveniles are greyish brown and
have a yellowish-brown frontal shield with a small dorsal
protuberance. Chicks (downy young) are black with sparse reddish down
on the head and a red frontal shield and bill. Eggs are creamy tan,
heavily spotted with brown or black, about 47.7 mm by 34.5 mm in size
(01,02,03,04,05).
The Hawaiian coot was first described by Peale in 1848 and named
Fulica alai (05,06). Dole gave the name Fulica alae in 1879 (05,07).
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
There is no disagreement on the present nomenclature, Fulica americana
alai, indicating that the Hawaiin coot is a subspecies of the American
coot (03,08,09). The first specimen was collected by A. Bloxam from
Pearl Harbor, O'ahu in 1824 (09). Thirty-nine of the 56 known
specimens are distributed among the American Museum of Natural History
in Washington, D.C., Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University
(including the type specimen), the National Museum of Natural History
in Washington, D.C. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu, and
Brigham Young University, Hawai'i Campus in La'ie, O'ahu (09,10).
Photographs, descriptons, and drawings are available at the State of
Hawai'i, Division of Foresty and Wildlife, Honolulu, HI 96813 (10).
Common names for the Hawaiian coot include: alae-keokeo (also
spelled alae-keokeo and alae keo keo), 'alae-kea, 'alai-awi
(juvenile), 'alai-nu-kea, and mudhen.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Hawaiian coot (Fulica americana alai) has been designated
as Endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found including the
State of Hawai'i. Critical Habitat has not been designated.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The Hawaiian coot, Fulica americana alai, is protected by the
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) under the
listing of the American coot, Fulica americana (50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for cooperation in the law
enforcement/protection of this subspecies with
applicable State and Federal laws on public land under
their control. Also responsible for cooperation in
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered, Non-game Bird
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Forestry and Wildlife
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Ch. 195D; Administrative
Rules of Hawai'i, Sec. 13-124-2, Exhibit 1.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Hawaiian coot is listed as Rare in the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals (1986) and is listed by the U.S. in the Annex to
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Once hunted (removed from the game bird list in 1939), this is
now one of the many endemic birds of Hawai'i sought by bird watchers.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Status review
85/07/01:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Residential
Transportation, communications, and Util
Industrial
Cropland and Pasture
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Transitional Areas
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, upper perennial FL6
Riverine, upper perennial FL4
Riverine, upper perennial FL3
3AB
Riverine, upper perennial AB2
Riverine, lower perennial UB4
Riverine, lower perennial UB3
Riverine, lower perennial UB2
Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB2
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral FL6
Lacustrine, littoral FL4
2FL
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral EM4
Lacustrine, littoral EM3
Lacustrine, littoral AB5
Lacustrine, littoral AB4
Lacustrine, littoral AB2
Lacustrine, limnetic UB4
Lacustrine, limnetic UB3
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic AB5
1AB
Palustrine UB4
Palustrine UB3
Palustrine UB2
Palustrine OW0
Palustrine FL6
Palustrine FL4
Palustrine FL3
Palustrine FL2
Palustrine EM6
Habitat Associations - 1
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Palustrine EM2
0EM
Palustrine AB4
Palustrine AB2
Palustrine AB1
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal EM6
Estuarine, intertidal EM5
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Hawaiian coots favor thickly vegetated marshlands adjacent to
deep, open freshwater in lowland areas. Brackish (estuarine)
environments are used and, rarely, coots may be found in marine
waters. Specific site types include taro patches, reservoirs, sewage
ponds, sugar-cane water settling basins, old Hawaiian fish ponds,
aquaculture impoundments, broad coastal streams, and occasionally
flooded (wet) pastures (sometimes flooded by overflow of reservoirs)
(01,02,10,12,13,14). Nesting habitat is generally along edges of open
water in fairly dense vegetation with some emergent plants, or in
small open areas (01). Extremely dense clumps of robust emergent
plants are avoided (15). Preferred feeding habitat is open fresh,
brackish, or, rarely, marine waters surrounded by vegetation (01,02).
Coots feed near the surface, dive to the bottom or forage on mud or
sand bars (02,13). Loafing habitat includes logs, rafts of
vegetation, narrow dikes, mud bars, artificial islands, depressions,
and false nest islets (01).
On Ni'ihau, the largest number of coots utilize the larger bodies
of freshwater such as Halalai Lake and the 'Apana and Pohueloa
reservoirs.
Kaua'i coots have been noted in greatest numbers at the large
reservoirs (Waita, Pu'u Ka 'Ele, Slogget and Waiakalua), in the taro
fields of the Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), and in the
stream and estuary of Lumaha'i Valley. In some years, extremely large
numbers have been noted on the brackish Menehune Fish Pond near
Lihu'e. Ditches are another habitat used on Kaua'i.
On O'ahu, coots favor freshwater prawn farm ponds at Kahuku and
La'ie, the Ki'i Unit of the Charles Campbell NWR on the north coast, a
few isolated habitats in Nu'uanu Valley, and Salt Lake adjacent to a
golf course in urban Honolulu.
The two major habitats on Maui are the brackish Kanaha Pond State
Wildlife Sanctuary and Kealia Pond on the south coast of Maui, which
provide the open water and surrounding emergent vegetation they favor.
The agricultural (sugar-cane) areas between these two sites may also
afford habitat, particularly in drainage ditches and ephemeral
wetlands (10).
The distribution of coots on Moloka'i extends in a narrow band
along the southern coastland in impoundments, marshes, and fishponds.
The habitat generally straddles the main highway (Route 46). The
Kakahaia NWR on Moloka'i is a slightly brackish pond thickly vegetated
with emergent plants dissected by channels surrounding a central open
water area. This site and the Paialoa Pond are the major habitats on
this island. Other locations include the O'o'ia and Kaluapuhi
fishponds at Pala'au, the sewage treatment pond in the main town of
Kaunakakai, and the Pailoa marsh between Kamalo and 'Ualapu'e (09,16,
Habitat Associations - 2 22,23,24,25).
Of the two major brackish ponds on the west coast of Hawai'i
Island, Aimakapa Pond at Honokohau provides the better habitat - a
large pond with mud bars and dense emergent vegetation at the upland
side (10,16,17). On the northeast they are found at the Lokoaka and
Waiakea pond areas in the vicinity of the primary city on the island,
Hilo (01,21).
Vegetation associations have not been thoroughly described for
Hawaiian coots, although general descriptions for Hawaiian waterbird
habitats exist (10). Descriptions of nest sites indicate adjacent
vegetation is used in construction. At Kakahai'a on Moloka'i, sedges
(Scirpus californicus and S. lacustris), cattail (Typha angustata),
fleabane (Pluchea indica), akulikuli (Batis maritima), and dense algae
mats are included. On O'ahu at the Ki'i Unit of the James Campbell
NWR, nests are associated with water hyssop (Bacopa monnieri), Hilo
grass (Paspalum coniugatum), and California grass (Brachiaria mutica)
(15). Sedge (Cyperus sp.) and akulikuli are listed as plants
associated with coot nests at Kealia on Maui (18). A few
environmental parameters were given for Hawaiian coots at nine
habitats on Kaua'i. Soils were described as: Kekaha silty clay,
Malama stony clay loam, Hanalei silty clay loam, Puhi silty clay loam,
Lauai silty clay, Kalopa silty clay, Kalihi clay, and Pakala clay
loam. The average water surface temperature was 23.3 degrees C
(range 21-26.5); alkalinity, 95 (range 30-250); dissolved oxygen,
4.7 (range 1.6-7.7); and carbon dioxide 8.8 (range 3.8-19.0) in these
areas (19). The average water depth in "natural" coot habitats at
Kakahai'a on Moloka'i and Ki'i and Punamano on O'ahu was 33.5 cm.
However, at the Amorient aquaculture farm on O'ahu, the average depth
was 60.8 cm in the prawn ponds used by coots (15). Little else has
been described specifically for the Hawaiian coot.
Habitat Associations - 3 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Poaceae
General
General Forb Leaves/Stems
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Fish
General Amphibia
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
G Terrestrial Features: Downed logs
G Human Association: Farm ponds
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Hawaiian coots are omnivorous, generally feeding close to nesting
areas but traveling great distances when food is scarce locally. They
feed near the surface, dive to the bottom, or forage on mud or sand
bars (02,13). Animal food items include worms, snails, crustaceans,
the adults and larvae of aquatic and terrestrial insects, small fish,
and perhaps tadpoles (02,13,20). The seeds and leaves of a variety of
aquatic and terrestrial plants including sedges (Scirpus robusta),
grasses (Brachiaria mutica), and rushes (Eleocharis spp.) are
consumed (19). Young taro (Colocasia esculenta) plants also are eaten
by the coot (02). Nothing is known about seasonal variability,
variations in food consumption by age class, or food preferences (10).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The home range and territorial habits of the Hawai'i coot have
not been described. Distances between nest sites are highly variable,
but are usually less than 30.5 m (100 ft) (02). A few describers give
distances of 7, 13.5, 25.5, and 27 m (2,4,7.8,8.2, ft) between nest
sites at Kakahai'a on Moloka'i, Ki'i on O'ahu, and Kealia on Maui
(15,18). In one limited study of three areas, there was an average of
1.6, 2.5, and 12.5 nests per hectare (2.5 acre) (15). Hawaiian coots
generally feed, nest, and loaf in the same limited area, although at
times they gather in large flocks on sizable water areas far from
breeding sites (01,02,10,15,16).
PERIODICITY:
Seasonal variations in the life cycle of the Hawaiian coot have
not been studied in depth. Breeding takes place year-round, and
choice of habitat seems to be a function of weather, and thus,
breeding and feeding site selection. It has been noted, for instance,
that coots desert the Island of Ni'ihau entirely in times of severe
summer drought (02,10,13,15).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Hawaiian subspecies of the American coot does not migrate.
It has been suggested that North American coots migrate to Hawaii and
mingle with their local brethren. Large increases in the Hawaiian
coot populations on a given island in some years suggest movement
between islands from inhospitable to hospitable habitats (02,13,16,
17).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Neither cover or shelter requirements have been described, except
to say that Hawaiian coots favor thick vegetation adjacent to open
water but are not found in very dense clumps of vigorously growing
emergent plants (01,02,13,15).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Except for nest location descriptions, little has been written
about breeding habitats. Nests are usually located adjacent to, or in
vegetation along the edges of open water areas including: fresh or
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
brackish ponds, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, lakes, sugar-cane
water settling basins, commercial prawn farm ponds, or small openings
in marsh vegetation (02,03,13,15). Nesting sites are usually selected
where there is a stable water level, although floating nests "tied" to
adjacent vegetation, thus allowing for "ups and downs" in water
levels, have been recorded (13,15). In one study, floating nests were
at the edge of sedge (Cyperus sp.) or akulikuli (Batis maritime).
Although lush vegetation is favored for nests, low-stem density is
required. Floating or semi-floating nests anchored to emergent
vegetation are associated with sedge, akulikuli, cattail (Typha spp.),
bullrush (Scirpus spp.), and various grasses (02,15,18). Nest
foundations noted have been mats of algae, water hyssop (Bacopa
monnieria), Hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum), or an islet created by
dredged spoil material. In one study, the average height of cover
plants at nest sites varied from 34.4 cm to 120.0 cm (13.5-47.2 in)
(15). In another study, nests averaged 42 cm (16.6 in) in diameter,
15 cm (5.9 in) in height, and had interior depressions of 3.8-10 cm
(1.5 to 4.0 in) in depth (18). Other reproductive site parameters
have not been reported (10).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Coot reproduction has been poorly studied in Hawai'i (10,15).
They breed year-round, but the peak nesting season is April through
September (01,03,12,13,15,18). The impetus to nest appears to be the
availability of suitable habitat (13,15). The incubation period is
from 23-27 days (averaging 25 days), and incubation begins with the
laying of the first egg resulting in staggered aged chicks (01,02,13,
15,18). Clutch sizes vary from three to ten eggs, averaging five per
clutch (03,13,18,20). Fertility average 86% and hatching success
80-84% (lower than North American birds) in limited studies (15,18,
20). Based on very few observations, average brood sizes varied
between 1.6 and 4.4 (mean=3.0); fledgling mortality was 76% (15,18).
A single record of two broods being reared in one annual period at the
Amorient aquaculture farm at Kahuku on O'ahu is the only indication
that Hawaiian coots are capable of doing so (15). Age at sexual
maturity, minimum/maximum breeding ages, courtship, and mating
relations are unknown (10).
PARENTAL CARE:
Both parents share in incubating duties and spend time adding
vegetative materials to the nest in the process. Chicks are actively
fed by the parents, and immatures remain close to the adults several
weeks after hatching. Territorial defense by both adults has been
noted (02,18). Due to the dense vegetation in which coots are found
during the breeding season, parent-young relationships have been
difficult to observe (10).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Except for annual winter censuses conducted since 1963 and annual
summer censuses conducted since 1970, population dynamics have not
been studied (10). The censuses lacked the accuracy necessary for
interpretation of population trends due to variability of methods and
erratic geographical coverage (09). For the period 1977-1984,
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
statewide censuses during the summer averaged 1,802 coots (range:
915-4,446); during the period 1977-1982, winter censuses averaged
1,537 birds (range: 422-2,330). An indicated "population" increase
of 50% in one year often was inexplicably followed by a 50% decrease
the next year (summer counts in 1978, 1979, and 1980) (10,15). A
recent analysis of pre-breeding populations was distributed as
follows: Kaua'i, 70%; Ni'ihau, 4%; O'ahu, 11%; Moloka'i, 2%; Maui, 7%;
and Hawai'i, 6%. An analysis of the post-breeding state-wide
population showed an average of 1,550 coots, a number believed to be
relatively stable in the long run (09). Survival, mortality,
recruitment, sex ratios, and longevity are unknown (10). Current
limiting factors include habitat loss or alteration, predation, human
disturbance, and possibly disease and poisoning. The prime objective
of the recovery program is to maintain, at least, a population of
2,000 Hawaiian coots for three consecutive years in the habitats and
on the islands that it existed on in 1976 (01,13).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The Hawaiian coot does not have a direct causal relationship with
other animals except for the obvious dependence on the actions of man.
They are prey for feral and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), feral
and domestic cats (Felis catus), and rats (Rattus spp.). Herons
(Nycticorax nycticorax hactli), large-mouth bass (Micropterus sp.) and
cattle egrets (Bulbulcus ibis) may also serve as predators (01,02,13).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Unknown.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Water Right Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Prescribed/controlled burning of habitat
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Existing Subsistence Hunting/Fishing/Trapping
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Sport Hunting/Fishing
Existing Sport Hunting/Fishing
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Prior to 1939, sport and subsistence hunting was a major factor
in the decline of the Hawaiian coot; they were almost exterminated in
local areas at the turn of the century (01,11). Illegal shooting is a
factor today where coots pose a nuisance in taro fields (02). The
major cause for its current status is habitat loss or alteration.
Natural ponds have been replaced by human developments, taro lands
which once supported coots have been reduced drastically, rice land
habitats are no longer available, and many Hawaiian fishponds have
been filled in or have deteriorated. Flooding, shoreline modification
and channel modification have all negatively impacted the species and
have result from residential and agricultural development (01,02,03,
10,12). Exotic vegetation, including California grass (Brachiaria
mutica, water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), and mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle), has reduced open water habitats in many areas (01,02,03).
Introduced predators as mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), feral
cats (Felis catus), and dogs (Canis familiaris), have been implicated
in mortality, and it is possible rats (Rattus spp.), large-mouth bass
(Micropterus sp.), and cattle egrets (Bulbulcus ibis) are also a
factor. Human activities including abruptly changing water levels in
impoundments, using toxic chemicals, installing aquacultural bird
exclusionary devices, poisoning algae, and directly disturbing coots
in their habitats are lesser factors individually but significant
collectively. Deaths due to botulism have been recorded. Some direct
mortality is caused by vehicular impacts on roads and collisions with
powerlines and towers (01,02). Although development of protected
habitats on State and Federal sanctuaries and refuges and a marked
increase in aquaculture have resulted in increased populations, all
factors leading to its endangered status are still operative to some
degree (02,10).
Future threats may include destruction or modification of
wetlands by human developments, predation by newly introduced
predators, disease, disturbance, pollution or poisoning. Vital to the
prevention of population declines is the acquisition of new, secure
habitats, active predator control on government refuges, intensified
management (water-level control), and quick reactions to incidences of
pollution, disease, or poisons (02,10).
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian
Waterbirds. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 99 pp.
The Hawaiian coot has declined due to loss or degradation of
habitat and to nest predation by introduced mammals. The revised
Hawaiian Waterbirds Recovery Plan states as its prime objective to
maintain a minimum populaton of 2,000 coots with a stable distribution
of habitats as outlined in the original 1978 recovery plan.
Progressive down-listing and delisting can be made once specified
areas of habitat are secured and the population rises to 2,000 or more
birds for six consecutive years.
Recommended recovery actions include:
1. Securing specified habitats on five islands (utilize cooperative
agreements, land acquisition, etc., to control development).
2. Development of cooperative agreements among the State and Federal
government and private landowners to provide for management of
wetland habitat on private lands and on government lands not held
by wildlife agencies.
3. Use regulatory authority and provide technical assistance to
landowners and agencies to protect and enhance wetlands; for
example, full or partial fencing of areas to control domestic
animals.
4. Identify additional habitat.
5. Manage habitat to maximize productivity by controlling water
levels; manage for desirable plants and control noxious (primarily
introduced) plants; provide shallow and deeper water habitats
(stream bank or channel modification); control predators such as
introduced mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) and rats (Rattus
spp.), domestic or feral cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis
familiaris), and native predators such as black-crowned night
herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) and cattle egrets (Bulbulcus ibis);
control human access to sensitive habitats; prevent poaching or
accidental shooting; prevent disease outbreaks; and restrict
habitat contamination by pollutants.
6. Conduct management related reserch.
7. Continue population monitoring.
8. Generate public awareness and support for waterbird recovery
programs through education and dissemination of information.
9. Rehabilitate and release injured birds.
Although not specifically mentioned in the recovery plan, some
additional actions are recommended. Acquisition of water rights may
be needed to properly manage some habitats. Prescribed burning to
maintain early successional stages is being researched and may prove
to be a valuable management tool.
Recovery actions accomplished or in progress are almost too
numerous to list. Foremost are the creation of (1) State sanctuaries
at Kanaha and Kealia Ponds and at Paiko Lagoon and (2) National
Wildlife Refuges (NWR), including Hanalei, Huleia, Kakahaia, Pearl
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
Harbor, and James Campbell NWR's. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS) is negotiating the acquisition of Kealia Pond. Management of
these refuges is controversial, particularly as to how water levels
and salinity should be regulated to maximize productivity of endemic
waterbirds. A research project funded by the USFWS and conducted by
the University of Missouri is currently investigating problems of
habitat improvement and predator contol for Hawaiian waterbirds.
Another USFWS research project is a study of the biology and control
of the small Indian mongoose. Several of the NWR's have been fenced
and are subject to predator control. Development projects reviewed by
the Environmental Services Office of the USFWS often have been
required to take into account the protection or improvement of
waterbird habitat; mitigation has led to the creation of new habitat
(including artificial ponds and islands), such as at Ho'omaluhia Park
and Punaho'olapa wetlands.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1978. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
02 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. An ornithological survey of Hawaiian
wetlands, Vol. 1. U.S. Army, Engineer District (Ahuimanu
Productions), Honolulu, HI.
03 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
04 Pratt, H.D. 1978. Do mainland coots occur in Hawaii? Elepaio
38(7):73.
05 Rothschild, W. 1893. Avifauna of Laysan and neighboring islands
with a complete history to date of the birds of the Hawaiian
possessions, Part II. R.H. Porter, London.
06 Peale, T.R. 1848. United States exploring expedition, 1838-1842,
mammalia and ornithology: Vol. 8. C. Sherman, Philadelphia, PA.
224 pp.
07 Dole, S.B. 1879. List of birds of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian
Almanac and Annual. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu, HI. Pages 41-58.
08 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publishing Co,
Honolulu, HI.
09 Banko, W.E. 1985. History of endemic Hawaiian birds, Part 1.
Population histories--species accounts: Freshwater birds. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report 10. Available from: University of Hawaii at
Manoa, Dept. of Botany (C.W. Smith, Unit Director), Honolulu, HI.
10 Walker, R.L. 1985. Personal knowledge. 46-305 Hoauna Street,
Kaneohe, HI 96744.
11 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. Thos. G. Thrum, Honolulu, HI. 73-117.
12 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1952. The Hawaiian coot. Auk
69:446-449.
13 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 99 pp.
14 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Fauna hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, Part IV,
vertebra. Cambridge University Press, London.
15 Byrd, G.V., R.A. Coleman, R.J. Shallenberger, and C.S. Arume.
1985. Notes on the breeding biology of the Hawaiian race of the
American coot. Elepaio 45(7):57-63.
16 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1980. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-4, Job R-III-A, July 1, 1978
to January 31, 1980. 56 pp.
17 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. June, 1985. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds in the State of Hawaii. Job Progress
Report, W-18-R-9, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1984 to January 31, 1985.
66 pp.
18 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. October, 1976. Limited
study of nesting by stilt on the islands of Maui, Oahu, and Kauai.
Job Progress Report, W-18-R-1, Job R-III-C, July 1, 1975 to June
30, 1976. 34 pp.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
19 Telfer, T.C. September, 1976. Description of waterbird habitats
as related to food availability and feeding behavior of endangered
waterbird species on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. Job Progress
Report, W-18-R-1, Job R-III-D, July 1, 1975 to June 30, 1976.
Hawaii Div. Forestry and Wildlife, Honolulu. 18 pp.
20 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. October, 1978. Limited
study of nesting by stilt on the islands of Maui, Oahu, and Kauai.
Job Progress Report, W-18-R-1, Job R-III-C. July 1, 1977 to June
30, 1978. 38 pp.
21 Patton, P.W.C. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Waterbirds of Hawaii Island.
Elepaio 45(8):69-76.
22 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. [n.d.] Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1980
to January 31, 1981.
23 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. April, 1982. Surveys
and inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-6, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1981
to January 31, 1982. 32 pp.
24 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. May, 1983. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-7, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1982 to
January 31, 1983. 35 pp.
25 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1984. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-8, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1983
to January 31, 1984. 33 pp.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Armstong, R.W., ed. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. The University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1978. Hawaiian Waterbirds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR.
03 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. An ornithological survey of Hawaiian
wetlands, Vol. 1. U.S. Army, Engineer District (Ahuimanu
Productions), Honolulu, HI.
04 Banko, W.E. 1985. History of endemic Hawaiian birds, Part 1.
Population histories--species accounts: Freshwater birds. CPSU/UH
Avian History Report 10. Available from: University of Hawaii at
Manoa, Dept. of Botany (C.W. Smith, Unit Director), Honolulu, HI.
05 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
06 Walker, R.L. 1985. Pers. knowl. Kaneohe, HI 96744.
07 Patton, P.W.C. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Waterbirds of Hawaii Island.
Elepaio 45(8):69-76.
08 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1980. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-4, Job R-III-A, July 1, 1978
to January 31, 1980. 56 pp.
09 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. [n.d.] Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species COOT, HAWAIIAN
Species Id ESIS101030
Date 14 MAR 96
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-5, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1980
to January 31, 1981.
10 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. April, 1982. Surveys
and inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-6, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1981
to January 31, 1982. 32 pp.
11 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. May, 1983. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-7, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1982 to
January 31, 1983. 35 pp.
12 Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife. July, 1984. Surveys and
inventories of waterbirds and their habitats in the State of
Hawaii. Job Progress Report, W-18-R-8, Job R-III-A, Feb. 1, 1983
to January 31, 1984. 33 pp.
13 Rothschild, W. 1893. Avifauna of Laysan and neighboring islands
with a complete history to date of the birds of the Hawaiian
possessions, Part II. R.H. Porter, London.
14 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publishing Co.,
Honolulu, HI.
15 Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1952. The Hawaiian coot. Auk
69:446-449.
16 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.
References - 3