(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - AKEPA, MAUI
OTHER COMMON NAMES - AKEPA, MAUI;'AKEPA, MAUI; AKEPA; 'AKEPA; AKEPA, COMMON; AKEPEUIE; 'AKEPEU'IE; AKEPEUIE, MAUI; 'AKEPEU'IE, MAUI; AKEPEUIE and OCHRACEUS;AKEPUIE;OCHRACEUS
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - LOXOPS,
SPECIES AND SSP - COCCINEUS, OCHRACEUS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - LOXOPS COCCINEUS OCHRACEUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Maui Akepa
Loxops coccineus ochraceus Rothschild, 1900
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
Akepa are small birds approximately 100-125 mm (4-5 in) in length
(08,09,13,14,19,25,27) with long notched tails (08,09,19). They have
short, conical bills (08,09,13). The tips of the two mandibles are
twisted slightly in opposite directions. However, this characteristic
is not observable in the field (08,09). The male Maui 'akepa varies
from brownish-orange to dull or golden yellow with gray bill and the
female is green above and yellow below (08,09,13,14,19,27). Juvenile
males resemble females but may be washed with orange on the breast.
Older immature males may be golden yellow irregularly tinged with
orange (19).
Nomenclature changes in this species reflect the different
perspectives on the generic boundaries of the Hawaiian honeycreepers,
and incorporates the pertinent regulations under the International
Code for Zoological Nomenclature (17). Maui 'akepa was originally
described as Loxops coccinea ochracea by Rothschild in 1900 (06,24).
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
In 1944, Munroe (14) recognized Loxops coccinea ochracea in the group
Chlorodrepanine, one of two groups recognized in the family
Drepanididae (14). In 1950, Amadon (01) recognized Loxops coccinea
ochracea in the family Drepaniidae (former spelling) and subfamily
Psittirostrinae which is one of two recognized subfamilies (01). This
was the accepted name in virtually all literature until 1979 when
Pratt (18) revised the honeycreepers and recognized three subgroups
rather than two. He recognized the subfamily Drepanididae under the
family Fringillidae and, therefore, he called his subgroups tribes
(17). Pratt also changed the scientific names in the genus Loxops to
reflect the masculine ending which is required by nomenclatural rules
to gender. This changed Loxops coccinea ochracea to Loxops coccineus
ochraceus (18). Berger originally recognized Loxops coccinea ochracea
in the family Drepanididae and subfamily Psittirostrinae until 1981
(07,08). In 1981, Berger agreed with Pratt on the gender ending and
he recognized three subgroups. He, however, maintained the family
Drepanididae with three subfamilies. Therefore, he placed Loxops
coccineus ochraceus in the subfamily Hemignathinae (09). The 6th
Edition of the American Ornithologists' Union (1983) recognizes Loxops
coccineus ochraceus in the family Fringillidae, subfamily Drepanididae
and tribe Hemignathini (02,22,23). Maui 'akepa has also been
recognized as Loxops coccineus with no subspecies designation (03,17,
19,25). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recognizes Loxops
coccineus ochraceus, which is Rothschild's nomenclature with the
proper gender ending (29).
The common names akepa or 'akepa and Maui akepa or Maui 'akepa
are used throughout the literature (02,05,06,07,08,09,19,20,22,23,25,
28,29). Some other common names for Loxops coccineus ochraceus are
ochraceus akepeuie (01), ochraceus (14), akepeuie or 'akepeu'ie (05,
06,20,21,23,28), Maui akepeuie or Maui 'akepeu'ie (06,14). The common
names for Loxops coccineus are akepa (03,19,25), common akepa (02,03,
19) and akepeuie (03). The other common names (Hawaii akepa, akakane,
Oahu akepa, akekee) as listed by the Association of Systematics
Collections for Loxops coccineus are not common names for the 'akepa
on Maui (21,28). The October 20, 1970 U.S. revision to the Annex
lists the common name akepuie (30).
Fifty-four specimens of Maui 'akepa have been found in museum
collections as follows: 24 in the American Museum of Natural History
in New York; one in the Academy of Natural Science in Philadelphia;
12 in the British Museum (Natural History) in London; one in the
California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco; 11 at Cornell
University in Ithaca; two in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
Harvard University, Cambridge; one in the Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlijke
Historie in Leiden and two in the Staatliches Museum Fur Tierkunde
Dresden (05).
Illustrations of the species can be found in Birds of Hawaii by
Munroe (14), Hawaiian Birdlife by Berger (08,09), The Birds of Hawaii
and the Tropical Pacific by Pratt, Bruner, and Berrett (19), Hawaii's
Birds by Shallenberger (27), and the Forest Bird Communities of the
Hawaiian Islands: Their Dynamics, Ecology, and Conservation by Scott,
Mountainspring, Ramsey, and Kepler (25).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Maui 'akepa (Loxops coccineus ochraceus) has been designated
as Endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found including
the Island of Maui, Hawaii.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawaii
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Div. of Forestry and Wildlife
STATE STATUTE: Hawaii Rev. Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
This species is listed by the United States in the Annex to the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere, 1970. It is also listed as endangered in the 1986
IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. The species is not listed by
CITIES.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore. It is among the many rare birds sought on Maui by bird
watchers.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed rule
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule
74/01/04:39 FR 01171/01178 - Updated list
76/09/30:41 FR 43340/43358 - Updated list
76/10/27:41 FR 47180/47198 - Updated list to correct errors
77/07/14:42 FR 36420/36431 - Updated list
78/12/11:43 FR 58030/58048 - Updated list
79/01/17:44 FR 03636/03654 - Republication of the list of species
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Notice of status review
80/05/20:45 FR 33768/33781 - Updated list
83/07/27:48 FR 34182/34196 - Updated list
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Notice of review
87/07/07:52 FR 25523/25525 - Notice of 5-year review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Maui 'akepa occur primarily in mesic to wet montane forests
from 1,100-2,100 m (3,600-6,900 ft) elevation (25). Their habitat
consists of koa-'ohi'a (Acacia koa-Metrosideros polymorpha) forest and
'ohi'a forest (13,25).
The majority of the Maui 'akepa's distribution is found in
Hydrandepts-Tropaquods association (code rHT). This association is
gently sloping to steep. Hydrandepts are moderately well-drained to
well-drained soils that have a surface layer high in organic-matter
content. The subsoil is dark-brown or dark yellowish-brown silty clay
loam or silty clay. Tropaquods are poorly-drained soils that have a
peaty and mucky surface layer and a mottled silty clay (11).
Maui 'akepa's distribution also extends into Rock land-Rough
mountainous land association. Rock land (code rRK) is characterized
by the presence of rock outcrops over 25-90 percent of the surface and
by very shallow soils. The land type is nearly level to very steep.
Rough mountainous land (code rRT) consists of very steep land broken
by numerous intermittent drainage channels. It is dominated by deep,
V-shaped valleys that have extremely steep side slopes and narrow
ridges between the valleys. Over much of the area, the soil mantle is
very thin and ranges from 25-250 mm (1-10 in) in thickness over
saprolite (11).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
'Akepa feed largely on caterpillars and spiders, occasionally
taking nectar (09,13,27). They capture the insects on koa and 'ohi'a
by twisting apart 'ohi'a leaf buds, prying into woven-together koa
phyllodes, and foraging among terminal leaf clusters (09,13,16,25).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Nothing is known of the home range or territoriality of Maui
'akepa.
PERIODICITY:
Maui 'akepa are diurnal (09). Seasonal variation in their habits
has never been studied.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Maui 'akepa are non-migratory (09).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
To date, Maui 'akepa have been found in two forest types and
apparently require the intact native forest vegetation of 'ohi'a and
koa for cover and shelter to survive (25). The minimum area of cover
required is not known.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
One possible Maui 'akepa nest was recorded by Perkins. This was
an open statant cup attached to small branches in the terminal crown
of an 'ohi'a tree (12,26). Eddinger recorded "a pair of Maui 'akepa
building their nest high up in a tall 'ohi'a, near the extremity of a
horizontal branch. Both sexes kept coming to the ground for material
and were carrying off the woody down or 'pulu' of some stunted tree
ferns, probably as a lining for the nest." He also stated that the
nest was so well concealed that the details of the structure were
unidentifiable (10).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Nothing is known on the reproductive characteristics of Maui
'akepa.
PARENTAL CARE:
Nothing is known about the patterns of parental care.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The current Maui 'akepa population is estimated at approximately
230 birds with a patchy, relict distribution (25). Population size is
thought to be limited by habitat loss, avian disease, predation from
introduced mammals, and competition for food resources with introduced
birds (13,25).
There is no population density objective, but the population
density as determined by the Fish and Wildlife Service forest bird
surveys ranged from 8 to 15 birds/square km (25).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
A possible species interrelationships which may have a direct
impact on Maui 'akepa is interspecific competition for food resources
with introduced birds, especially Japanese white-eyes (Zosterops
japonicus) (25). The following introduced mammals may be predators on
Maui 'akepa or their eggs: mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus), feral
cats (Felis catus), Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) and black rats
(Rattus rattus). Avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox
(Poxvirus avium) carried by mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) could
also have a detrimental impact on Maui 'akepa. Many Hawaiian birds
are susceptible to these diseases and so it has been suggested that
some Hawaiian bird distributions are at least in part determined by
disease (13,25).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Invertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
There have been a number of factors suggested for the decline
and extinction of Hawaii's native avifauna. It is impossible at this
time to isolate any single factor, and the reason for the decline of
many of the birds is probably a result of interactions between all of
these factors. The factors which are thought to be threats for the
Maui 'akepa are habitat modification, predation, avian disease and
competition (13,25).
Habitat modification began with burning and clearing activities
of the Polynesian colonists circa 400 A.D. for agricultural
development (13,15,25). It continued into the 19th century, when
Europeans arrived (mid 1800's) and introduced cattle (Bos tauras),
European pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), and axis deer (Axis
axis) to Maui (13,25). Feral cattle are still present in some areas
of the Maui 'akepa's distribution (lower western end of their range).
However, the majority of the current habitat modification is due to
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
feral pigs and to a lesser extent goats and axis deer (13,25). Feral
pigs have the most direct effect on the Maui 'akepa, because the
majority of the pigs occur in the wet and mesic forests where Maui
'akepa are found (25). Rooting and wallowing activities of feral pigs
cause extensive damage in native ecosystems by radically altering the
understory, hindering forest regeneration, facilitating invasion of
introduced pest plants, and inducing severe soil erosion, especially
on steep slopes (13,25). In addition, pig activity generates
mosquito breeding sites, which may assist mosquitoes in establishing
populations at higher elevations and then in turn spreading avian
diseases (25).
Goats generally occupy forest edges and shrublands, where they
cause great damage to drier and more open Hawaiian ecosystems. They
are a major problem in Haleakala National Park and adjacent areas,
where they devastate alpine grassland and subalpine scrubland, and
also enter high-elevation wet forests. The advance of goats into
upper wet forest edges on Maui threatens forest birds including the
Maui 'akepa (25).
Axis deer were introduced to Maui in 1960. Even though the
numbers of axis deer on Maui are small, they constitute a major threat
to the mesic and wet native forests on Haleakala (25).
Habitat degradation caused by the invasion of introduced plants
is also considered a threat to the Maui 'akepa (25).
Introduced predators have been clearly implicated in the decline
of many forest birds. Of these, the black rat (Rattus rattus),
Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), feral cat (Felis catus), and small
Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) may affect the Maui 'akepa.
It has been argued that the black rat's arboreal habits affect
native birds through nest predation (04,25). The Polynesian rat's
impact on forest birds is unknown, but it is an agile climber and may
prey on forest birds. Feathers have been found in the stomach of both
black and Polynesian rats, but it is not known whether rats actually
prey on live birds (25). Cats occur in forest areas on Maui and are
known to be effective predators on native birds (16,24). The small
Indian mongoose may be an occasional predator because of its ground
feeding habits (25).
Because the endemic Hawaiian avifauna evolved in the absence of
many diseases prevalent in continental areas, numerous species show
marked susceptibility to (and occasionally die from) introduced avian
diseases, partiularly avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian
pox (Poxvirus avium). Malaria and pox were probably introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands via introduced birds. The primary vector for these
diseases is the mosquito, especially the ornithophilous night-biting
mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus). In places, Maui 'akepa's lower
elevational range is near the upper limit for mosquitoes, suggesting
that the 'akepa's distribution may at least in part be determined by
mosquito-borne diseases (13,25).
Competition for food resources occurs to some extent from
introduced birds. Competition with native birds in the past was
probably compensated for by the honeycreepers evolutionary
specialization. The Japanese white-eye was introduced in the 1930's
and is the most abundant and widespread omnivorous passerine in
Hawaiian forests. It has increased in numbers on East Maui above
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
1,500 m (ca. 5,000 ft) elevation since 1967 and has been found to be
the most significant competitor with native passerines for food
resources (25).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 33 pp.
Although recorded recently from three localities within its
former range, the Maui 'akepa is seldom seen and is regarded as
critically endangered. Captive breeding of this species is given low
priority by the Maui Forest Birds Recovery Plan. The recovery plan
states as its principal recovery action the securing of essential
habitat, to be managed for forest birds. All essential habitat lies
on the upper slopes of Haleakala within the boundary of the Haleakala
National Park or on state or private lands (including The Nature
Conservancy lands) zoned as a Conservation District. The recovery
plan calls for acquisition of conservation easements on private lands
(other than those held by The Conservancy) to facilitate management.
Management of habitat would include control of feral ungulates,
rodents, mosquitoes (disease vectors), and alien plants. Human access
should be controlled. Also needed is further research and censusing
of the 'akepa. The recovery plan recommends public education to
improve support for recovery programs.
On Maui, The Nature Conservancy has acquired a conservation
easement to a large parcel of essential habitat at Waikamoi. Future
management here should improve the habitat for forest birds, including
'akepa. The parcel is not far from other essential habitat on State
owned lands. At Haleakala National Park, a program to control feral
ungulates is well under way. Included is Kipahulu Valley, a site
contiguous with occupied 'akepa habitat. Lack of management of
essential forest bird habitat on State lands remains a serious
problem. Declaration of the Hanawi Natural Area Reserve secures
important lands within the 'akepa's former range. Though de facto
wilderness, these forests suffer from browsing and rooting by feral
pigs, from incursion by alien plants, and from other factors leading
to the degradation of forests as habitat for native birds. A captive
breeding program including a sperm bank is being planned by the State
and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service may include the Maui 'akepa among
the species propagated.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Amadon, D. 1980. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95(4):151-262.
02 American Ornithologists Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds. Sixth Ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
03 Association of Systematics Collections. n.d. Checklist of birds
of the United States and the U.S. Territories. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Kearneysville, WV.
04 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pac. Sci. 31(2):109-133.
05 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian birds: specimens
in museum collections. Avian History Rept. 2, Coop. Natl. Park
Res. Studies Unit, Univ. of HI, Honolulu.
06 Banko, W.E. 1984. History of endemic Hawaiian birds: population
histories-species accounts. Avian History Rept. 8B & C, Coop.
Natl. Park Res. Studies Unit, Univ. of HI, Honolulu.
07 Berger, A.J. 1970. The present status of the birds of Hawaii.
Pac. Sci. 24(1):29-42.
08 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. The Univ. Press of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
09 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife. Second Ed. The Univ.
Press of Hawaii, Honolulu.
10 Eddinger, C.R. 1973. Discovery of the nest of the Kauai akepa.
'Elepaio 33(10):106-107.
11 Foote, D.E., E.L. Hill, S. Nakamura, and F. Stephens. 1972. Soil
survey of islands of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, State
of Hawaii. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Soil Conserv. Serv., Wash., D.C.
12 Freed, L.A., T.M. Telecky, W.A. Tyler III, and M.A. Kjargaard.
1987. Nest-site variability in the 'akepa and other cavity-
nesting forest birds on the island of Hawaii. 'Elepaio
47(8):79-81.
13 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 33 pp.
14 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu,
HI.
15 Olson, S.L., and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool.
365:1-59.
16 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. In Sharp, D. (ed.). Fauna
Hawaiiensis. Vol. 1, Part IV. The Univ. Press, Cambridge,
England.
17 Pratt, H.D. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic avifauna
of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. thesis. Louisiana State Univ.,
Baton Rouge.
18 Pratt, H.D. 1979. Nomenclatural notes on Hawaiian birds.
'Elepaio 39(8):84-85.
19 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Bruner, and D.G. Berrett. 1987. A field guide
to the birds of Hawaii and the tropical Pacific. Princeton Univ.
Press, Princeton, NJ.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKEPA, MAUI
Species Id ESIS101037
Date 14 MAR 96
20 Pukui, M.K., and S.H. Elbert. 1986. Hawaiian dictionary. Revised
and enlarged ed. Univ. of HI Press, Honolulu.
21 Pyle, R.L. 1977. Preliminary list of the birds of Hawaii.
'Elepaio 37(10):110-121.
22 Pyle, R.L. 1979. Preliminary list of the birds of Hawaii.
Amendment No. 1. 'Elepaio 40(4):55-58.
23 Pyle, R.L. 1983. Checklist of the birds of Hawaii. 'Elepaio
44(5):47-58.
24 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 vol. R.H. Porter, London, England.
25 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biol. No. 9,
Cooper Ornithol. Soc., Lawrence, KS.
26 Scott, J.M., J.L. Sincock, and A.J. Berger. 1980. Records of
nests, eggs, nestlings and cavity nesting of endemic passerine
birds in Hawaii. 'Elepaio 40(12):163-168.
27 Shallenberger, R.J. 1986. Hawaii's birds. Third ed. 2nd Rev.
Hawaii Audobon Soc., Honolulu, HI.
28 Titcomb, M., and W.C. Gagne. 1976. List of Hawaiian bird names.
'Elepaio 36(10):117-126.
29 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Endangered and threatened
wildlife and plants. Reprint of 50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12. April 10.
Wash., D.C. 32 pp.
30 Department of the Interior. 1970. (Memo and attachment to the
Sec. of State from the Asst. Sec. of Interior). On file: U.S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv., Intern. Affairs, Wash., D.C. 20240.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian birds: specimens
in museum collections. Avian History Rept. 2, Coop. Natl. Park
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Date 14 MAR 96
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