(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - THRUSH, MOLOKAI
OTHER COMMON NAMES - THRUSH, MOLOKAI;THRUSH, MOLOKA'I; THRUSH, HAWAIIAN; THRUSH and LANAL; OLOMA'O;OLOMAO; OMAO; 'OMA'O
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - MUSCICAPIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MYADESTES,
SPECIES AND SSP - LANAIENSIS, RUTHA
SCIENTIFIC NAME - MYADESTES LANAIENSIS RUTHA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Moloka'i Thrush
Myadestes lanaiensis rutha (Wilson, 1891)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Muscicapidae
The Moloka'i thrush is a fairly large (7" to 8") heavy bodied
bird (01). Adults are dark brown above and gray below. Immatures
have typical thrush mottled breast. Very little information is
available on the species morphological description.
Amadon (13) lists the Oloma'o or Moloka'i thrush, in the family
Muscecapidae, subfamily Turdinae (sometimes considered a family
Turdidae (09)). He stated that the subfamily is represented by one
endemic genus, Phaeornis, apparently derived from the American
solitaires of the genus Myadestes, as Stejneger (1889) concluded, and
emphasized by naming the Kaua'i form Phaeornis myadestes. Some
authors suggested the Polynesian Turdus poliocephalus was the
ancestor of Phaeornis, but Amadon reinvestigated the question and came
to the same conclusion as Stejneger.
Six forms of Phaeornis from five different islands have been
described, originally as separate species - obscura (Gmelin) 1789 of
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
Hawai'i; lanaiensis, Wilson 1891 of Lana'i; rutha Bryan 1908 of
Moloka'i; oahensis Wilson and Evans 1899 of O'ahu; and myadestina
Stejneger 1887 and palmeri Rothschild 1893, both of Kaua'i (04).
Later they were considered subspecies or races of Phaeornis obscurus.
Amadon (13) stated that "The Moloka'i race is similar to that of Lanai
but separable (type and others examined)."
Th 1983 AOU Checklist (09) lists only Phaeornis obscurus
(Hawaiian thrush), but notes that some authors merge in Myadestes.
The 1986 supplement to the AOU list gives Olomao as the official
common name. However, the 35th supplement (10) to the AOU Checklist
consists of changes adopted by the Committee on Classification and
Nomenclature as of 1 March 1985 accepted Pratt's (02) recommendation
and merged Phaeornis in Myadestes, changed Myadestes obscurus to
M. occidentalis, changed Phaeornis obscurus to Myadestes obscurus and
split into four biological species: Myadestes myadestinus
(Stejneger), kama'o; M. oahensis (Wilson and Evans), 'amaui;
M. lanaiensis (Wilson), oloma'o; and M. obscurus (Gmelin), 'oma'o.
According to the AOU supplement (10) these four species existed in the
complex based on differences in vocalizations and morphology among the
living forms and they collectively constitute a superspecies.
The original Federal Register common name and scientific name
were Moloka'i thrush (=olomao) and Phaeornis obscurus rutha
respectively. Common names (and spelling variations) for the species
include olomao or oloma'o, omao or 'oma'o (improper use, pertains only
to Hawai'i) (09), Hawaiian thrush (Phaeornis obscurus) (09), Lanai
thrush (Myadestes lanaiensis) (14), and Moloka'i of Moloka'i thrush.
An illustration is available in Pratt, et al., 1987 (14).
Type specimens are found at the Bishop Museum, (male no. 4631,
and female no. 4632). A juvenile type specimen is located with the
Halawa Brian Collection (15).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Molokai thrush (Myadestes laniensis rutha) has been
designated as Endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of
1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found including
the State of Hawaii.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The subspecies is presumably protected by the Migratory Bird
Treaty Act (16 USC 703-712) under the species name Phaeornis obscurus
(Hawaiian thrush) (50 CFR 10.13) a synonym (ssp. rutha).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Div. of Forestry and Wildl., Dept. of
Land and Nat. Resour.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
IUCN listed the Molokai thrush as endangered (1977) and in the
1986 IUCN Red List of Treatened Animals under the scientific name
Paeornis obscurus rutha. The Molokai thrush is listed by the U.S. in
the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere Annex, 1970.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as a seed
dispersal vector and insectivore. It is among the rare birds sought
on Moloka'i bird watchers.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final listing
74/01/04:39 FR 01171/01178 - Relisted
76/09/30:41 FR 43340/43358 - Updated list
76/10/27:41 FR 47180/47198 - Updated list to correct errors
77/07/14:42 FR 36520/36431 - Updated list
78/12/11:43 FR 58030/58048 - Updated list
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Notice of status review
80/05/20:45 FR 33768/33781 - Updated list
83/07/27:48 FR 34182/34196 - Updated list
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Notice of review
87/07/07:52 FR 25522/25525 - Notice of 5-year review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Moloka'i thrush is restricted to wet forests above 4000 ft.
elevation. It prefers 'ohi'a forests with olapa (Cheirodendron) and
thick understory comprised of mosses, vines and tree ferns. There is
nothing known about specific habitat associations for the Moloka'i
thrush.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Tree Cavities: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Little is known of specific food habits for the Moloka'i Thrush.
Munro (06) reported the 'oma'o (Hawaiian thrush) feed largely on
fruit berries, insects, and caterpillars as well as the fleshy bracts
of the ieie vine (07).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Nothing is known of this species territorial behavior or home
range.
PERIODICITY:
The Moloka'i thrush is a diurnal species, but little is known of
it's seasonal activities.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
This species is nonmigratory.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Nothing is known of specific cover/shelter requirements of the
Moloka'i thrush.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
No active nest with eggs or young have been found for the
Moloka'i thrush. In 1979, van Riper and Scott found Hawaiian thrush
('oma'o) to nest in tree hollows, protected platforms and other
sheltered crevices (08). This would suggest that the Moloka'i thrush
might use a similar nesting situation.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Specific reproductive characteristics are not known for the
Moloka'i thrush.
PARENTAL CARE:
Specific parental care behavior is not known for the Moloka'i
thrush.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Recovery potential: Presently, the recovery potential for the
Moloka'i Thrush is unknown. The Moloka'i thrush is extremely rare.
Two individuals were observed in 1975 (11) and estimates indicate a
population of 19 birds (04). If this species should be rediscovered
in the wild there exists possibilities to ensure its' survival. One
of these is the Nature Conservancy of Hawai'i's Kamakou Preserve which
lies in the historical range of the thrush and would provide means for
protecting and increasing its population towards recovery.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
No known specific species interrelationships exists for the
Moloka'i thrush.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
The song of the oloma'o has been described as a "long,
thrush-like somewhat halting melody with a ventriloquial quality." It
issues a "variety of calls including a catlike rasp (04)."
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Invertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
There are many reasons why the forest birds of Hawai'i are
endangered. One of the most widely documented is the destruction of
the native Hawaiian forests by the early settlers on the islands (03).
The burning off of large tracts of forest for cultivation purposes
and eventual introduction of exotic plants and animals (goats (Capra
hircus), pigs (Sus scrota), cattle (Bos taurus), and axis deer (Axis
axis)) have severely impacted the native Hawaiian forest ecosystem.
Introduced feral ungulates disturb the native forests by foraging on
native plants causing erosion problems and creating areas where
invading exotic vegetation can be established (04). In 1868, eight
axis deer (gifts to Kamehameha V) were released on Moloka'i. Within
20 years the herd increased to about 1,000 animals continuing the
destruction of forest opened up by cattle (07).
Avian disease is known to have a severe impact on Hawaiian forest
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
birds (05). These introduced diseases such as avian pox and avian
malaria are often fatal for the native Hawaiian forest birds having
little resistance. Avian pox has been found ranging from seabirds to
passerines in Hawai'i. Avian malaria, caused by the night-biting
mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus) is widespread over all of the
Hawaiian islands having an upper elevational limit of about 5,000 feet
(06).
Competition for food and cover by the omnivorous Japanese
White-Eye (Zosterops japonica) may pose a threat to endangered forest
birds (01). These introduced exotic passerines do not exhibit
susceptibility to the introduced avian pox and avian malaria which
impact the native birds. The extreme rarity of the Moloka'i thrush has
had a harsh impact on the reproduction level of this species.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. The Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. In coop. with the Maui-Molokai Forest Bird Recovery
Team. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 110 pp.
Cryptic in its behavior and perhaps seasonal in its vocalization,
the Moloka'i thrush may be underestimated as to its real population
size. Nevertheless, the Moloka'i thrush is one of Hawai'i's most
endangered birds. Captive breeding of this species is (regretably)
given low priority by the Maui-Molokai Forest Birds Recovery Plan.
The recovery plan states as its principal recovery action the securing
(through acquisition, conservation easement or zoning) of essential
habitat to be managed for forest birds. All essential habitat lies on
the upper slopes of east Moloka'i within a Conservation District
encompassing state and private lands. Management of habitat for
forest birds should include control or elimination of feral ungulates
(goats, cattle, and pigs), rodents (rattus spp. Mus musculus),
mosquitoes (to control disease), limit birds imports to reduce chance
of introducing parasites and disease, and alien plants. The recovery
plan recommends public education to improve support for recovery
programs. Systematic surveys of Maui and Moloka'i are also
recommended.
Recent improvements in the status of lands on Moloka'i are a
conservation easement to Kawela, acquired by the Nature Conservancy,
and incorporation of the Oloku'i Plateau into the state Natural Area
Reserve System. Named the Kamakou Preserve, the Conservancy lands of
2,774 acres are being actively managed to restore the native
ecosystems there. The Oloku'i Natural Area Reserve of 1,700 acres is
protected on all sides by 3,000 ft cliffs and is inaccessible to feral
animals and reserve managers alike. Lack of mangement of essential
forest bird habitat remains a serious threat to endangered birds on
State lands north of Kawela and on private lands to the east. Though
de facto wilderness, these forests suffer from browsing and rooting by
feral pigs, from incursion by alien plants, and from other factors
leading to the degradation of forests as habitat for native birds.
Captive breeding and sperm bank programs are being planned by the
State and may include the Moloka'i thrush. Recently discovered
fossils on Maui may implicate that island as a range extention and
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
potential release site for this species. Techniques for propagation
could be tested first with a thrush species abundant on Hawai'i
Islands.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. The Maui-Molokai Forest
Bird Recovery Plan. Prep. in coop. with the Maui-Molokai Forest
Bird Recovery Team. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR.
110 pp.
02 Pratt, H.D. 1982. Relationships and speciation of the Hawaiian
thrushes. Living Bird 19:73-90.
03 Kirch, P.V. 1982. Transported landscapes. Nat. Hist.
91(12):32-35.
04 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biol. No. 9
431 pp.
05 van Riper, C. III., S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Coop. Nat. Park Resour. Studies Unit Tech. Rept. 47:1-74.
06 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Pub. Co., Honolulu.
07 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian Birdlife. The Univ. Press of HI,
Honolulu.
08 van Riper, C. III, and J.M. Scott. 1979. Observations on
distribution, diet, and breeding of the Hawaiian thrush. Condor
81:65-71.
09 American Ornithologists Union. 1983. Check-list of North American
birds, 6th ed. The Am. Ornith. Union, Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
10 Committee on Classification and Nomenclature. 1985. Thirty-fifth
supplement to the American ornithologists union checklist of North
American Birds. July 1985. Auk 102(3):680-685.
11 Pyle, R.L. 1983. Checklist of birds of Hawaii. Elepaio 44:47-58.
12 Scott, J.M., D.H. Woodside and T.L.C. Casey. 1977. Observations
of birds in the Molokai Forest Reserve, July 1975. Elepaio
38:25-27.
13 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves, Drepaniidae).
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:4.
14 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Brunner and D.G. Berrett. 1987. A field guide
to birds of Hawaii and the tropical Pacific. Princeton Univ. Press
Princeton, NJ. 409 pp.
15 Bryan, W.A. 1908. Some birds of Molokai. Occ. Pap. B.P. Bishop
Mus. 4:133-176.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool.
365:1-59.
02 Bryan, W.A. 1908. Some birds of Molokai. Occ. Pap. B.P. Bishop
Mus. 4:133-176.
03 Pekelo, N.K. 1964. Nature notes from Molokai. Elepaio 24:46-48
04 Scott, J.M., D.H. Woodside, and T.L.C. Casey. 1977. Observations
of birds in the Molokai Forest Reserve. July 1975. Elepaio
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species THRUSH, MOLOKAI
Species Id ESIS101039
Date 14 MAR 96
38:25-27.
05 Committee on Classification and Nomenclature. 1985. Thirty-fifth
supplement to the American ornithologists union checklist of North
American birds. July 1985. Auk 102(3):680-685.
References - 2