(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PO'OULI
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PO'OULI;POOULI; POO-ULI;POO ULI;PO'O-ULI; PO'O ULI; HONEYCREEPER and BLACK-FACED
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MELAMPROSOPS,
SPECIES AND SSP - PHAEOSOMA,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - MELAMPROSOPS PHAEOSOMA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Po'ouli
Melamprosops phaeosoma Casey and Jacobi, 1974
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
Po'ouli are 135 mm (5.25 in) in length (09,12,25). Above, they
are dark grayish brown, washed with paler cinnamon brown on neck and
back which becomes brighter on the upper tail coverts and feathers,
and on the outer vanes of the wing quills. A dull black mask extends
across the forehead, on chin and around eyes, extending backward and
terminating in a point. Sides of head and throat (below the black
area) and lower parts are pale buff, washed with gray across the
breast. Sides and under tail coverts are washed with dull rufous
brown and the flanks are light cinnamon brown. Legs and feet are
dark brown. The bill is black somewhat conical and the tail is very
short almost square (07,09).
Po'ouli was described as Melamprosops phaeosoma Casey and Jacobi,
1974, a distinct new genus and species in the family Drepanididae
(the family of Hawaiian honeycreepers). Melamprosops phaeosoma was
originally placed in the subfamily Psittirostrinae when described in
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
1973 (09,12,19). In 1979, Pratt doubted that Melamprosops was indeed
a honeycreeper and considered this genus incertae sedis (07,16). The
taxonomy of the Hawaiian honeycreepers was changed in the 6th Edition
of the American Ornithologists' Union 1983. Family Drepanididae was
changed to a subfamily under the family Fringillidae. Psittirostrini,
Hemignathini and Drepanidini tribes were erected. Melamprosops
phaeosoma is now tentatively placed in the tribe Drepanidini (02,19,
20,21). The latest published field guide on Hawaiian birds places
po'ouli in the subfamily Drepanidinae but does not designate tribes
(17).
In 1974, the common name "po'o uli" (including a space) was
suggested (09), but in 1977 it was recommended that the space be
deleted (03). The Hawaii Audubon Society recommends that traditional
Hawaiian names (including all diacritical marks) be used as the
vernacular names for endemic birds (21). Therefore, the common name
of Melamprosops phaeosoma should be "po'ouli." The vernacular name
listed in the AOU Checklist (1983) is "poouli" (02,21). The list of
"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants" by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service uses the name "po'ouli" (29), which incorporates the
glottal stop and is in accord with the traditional Hawaiian spelling
(18).
Many variants and alternates of the common name for Melamprosops
phaeosoma exist in the scientific literature as follows: poouli or
Poouli (02,07,21), poo-uli or Poo-uli (01,04,13,15,17,23), poo uli
(04), po'o-uli or Po'o-uli (05,17,24), Po'o Uli (06,14,19), po'o uli
(09,27), po'ouli or Po'ouli (03,10,18,20,21,22,25,26,29), and
black-faced honeycreeper (04,17).
The holotype is deposited in the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in
Honolulu, Hawaii (No. BBM-X-147112); the paratype is deposited in the
American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York
(AMNH No. 810456). No other specimens of po'ouli have been collected
(05,09).
Illustrations of the species can be found in Hawaiian Birdlife by
Berger (07), The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific by Pratt,
Bruner, and Berrett (17), Hawaii's Birds by Shallenberger (24), and
the Forest Bird Communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their Dynamics,
Ecology, and Conservation by Scott, Mountainspring, Ramsey, and
Kepler (23).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The po'ouli (Melamprosops phaeosoma) has been designated as
Endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR
17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended.
The species has this status wherever found including the Island of
Maui, Hawaii.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawaii
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Dept. of Land and Natural Resources
STATE STATUTE: Hawaii Rev. Stat., Chapter 195D.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
This species is listed as rare in the 1986 IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore. It is among the many rare birds sought on Maui by bird
watchers.
75/04/21:40 FR 17590/17591 - Proposed rule
75/09/25:40 FR 44148/44151 - Final rule
76/09/30:41 FR 43340/43358 - Updated list
76/10/27:41 FR 47180/47198 - Updated list to correct errors
77/07/14:42 FR 36420/36431 - Updated list
78/12/11:43 FR 58030/58048 - Updated list
79/01/17:44 FR 03636/03654 - Republication of list
80/05/20:45 FR 33768/33781 - Updated list
81/02/27:46 FR 14652/14658 - Notice of review
83/07/27:48 FR 34182/34196 - Updated list
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Notice of review
87/07/07:52 FR 25524/25528 - Notice of 5-year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Po'ouli occur in mesic and wet montane forests (23) from
1,400-2,100 m (4600-6800 ft) with 80 percent of the sightings
occurring at 1,800-2,050 m (5900-6725 ft) elevation (15). All known
sightings have been in wet 'ohi'a (Metrosideros polymorpha) forests
with well-developed understories (23). Most birds were seen in an
area of relatively dense, moss-draped vegetation, frequently along
gulches and other areas less disturbed by pig activity (15).
The upper Hanawi study area (the major area of distribution for
the po'ouli) supports a rainforest averaging 13 m (ca. 40 ft) height
and 60 percent crown cover, dominated by 'ohi'a (Metrosideros
polymorpha) and olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum). The understory is
composed of native subcanopy trees, shrubs, and ferns composed of
approximately 57 percent shrub cover, 10 percent herb cover and
66 percent fern cover (15).
Po'ouli are found in the Hydrandepts-Tropaquods soil association
(code rHT). This association is gently sloping to steep. Hydrandepts
are moderately well-drained to well-drained soils that have a surface
layer high in organic-matter content. The subsoil is dark-brown or
dark yellowish-brown silty clay loam or silty clay. Tropaquods are
poorly-drained soils that have a peaty or mucky surface layer and a
mottled silty clay (11).
The tip of the southwestern boundary of the known present
distribution of po'ouli may extend into Rock land-Rough mountainous
land soils. The possible present observation in The Nature
Conservancy's Waikamoi Preserve is in Rock land soil (code rRK),
which is characterized by the presence of rock outcrops over 25-90
percent of the surface and by very shallow soils. The land type is
nearly level to very steep. Rough mountainous land (code rRT)
consists of very steep land broken by numerous intermittent drainage
channels. It is dominated by deep, V-shaped valleys that have
extremely steep side slopes and narrow ridges between the valleys.
Over much of the area, the soil mantle is very thin and ranges from
25-250 mm (1-10 in) in thickness over saprolite (11).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
General Molluscs
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The po'ouli feed largely on small snails and insects gleaned from
low foliage and bark (05,23,25). A study done on the contents of the
two specimens collected in 1973 concluded that the birds eat both
animal and plant material. Molluscs appeared to be very important,
constituting the majority (63 percent) of the observed stomach
contents. Arthropods also formed a large fraction (33 percent) of the
consumed food, with 90 percent of the arthropods being insects. Food
taken from plants was a minor part (3.7 percent) of the po'ouli diet
and consisted of 'olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum) fruit fragments.
Nectar, if taken, would not have been detected in this study.
However, po'ouli have never been seen feeding on flowers (05).
The po'ouli feed within low trees and understory plants searching
slowly and methodically over leaves, branches and tree trunks, hunting
and prying in the bark (05,25). They most frequently foraged from
4-7 m (13-23 ft) height on 'ohi'a (Metrosideros polymorpha), olapa,
ohelo (Vaccinium calycinum) and kanawao (Broussaisia arguta).
Occasional ground foraging occurred. Prey were captured by gleaning,
probing, and pecking chiefly from among moss, lichen, and bark on
branches. Birds frequently pulled up lichen and moss mats in search
of prey (15).
A detailed list of species found in the alimentary tracts of the
two birds is described in detail in "A preliminary list of foods of
the po'o-uli" by Baldwin and Casey (05). No information is available
on food preference in differenct seasons of different life stages.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Virtually nothing is known of the home range or territoriality of
the po'ouli. No studies of individual movements have been conducted.
They have been observed in small flocks with Maui creeper (Paroreomyza
montana newtoni), Maui parrotbill (Pseudonestor xanthophrys) (15,23,
25), and twie with Maui nuku-pu'u (Hemignathus lucidus affinus) (08,
25), suggesting that interspecific territories may not be maintained.
PERIODICITY:
Po'ouli are diurnal. One study showed that the birds spent about
48 percent of their daylight hours foraging and 30 percent quietly
perching (15). Seasonal variation in its habits has never been
studied.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The po'ouli is non-migratory (07).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
To date, po'ouli have only been found in one habitat type and
apparently require this intact native forest vegetation for cover and
shelter to survive. It is not known if there is a minimum area of
cover required. Po'ouli use the understory and subcanopy extensively
and appear to be adversely impacted by habitat damage due to pigs.
Areas within the known range of po'ouli differ from nearby areas
outside its range at the same elevation and general vegetation type.
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
In-range areas show low to moderate pig damage and well developed
herb, ground fern, and moss layers, while adjacent areas outside the
range show significantly greater pig damage and less ground cover
(15,23).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Only two po'ouli nests have been observed. The nests were
composed of twigs and mosses tightly woven into a terminal leaf
cluster about 12 m (40 ft) up in an 'ohi'a (Metrosideros polymorpha)
tree (28).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The first nest was discovered while both birds were building, so
only a small amount of information is available on the pre-nesting
reproduction behavior. Only the female was observed incubating the
eggs. She attended the nest for long periods of time and departed
only occasionally to forage. The male foraged in the nesting area and
beyond, and brought food items to the female on the nest (28).
The exact breeding season is unknown, but the first nest was
found on March 3, 1986 and was abandoned sometime between April 8-14
presumably due to heavy rains. On April 16, the birds were observed
constructing a second nest. The site was revisited on May 5 and the
birds were incubating eggs (28). The length of incubation is not
certain but from the information available it is estimated to be
between one to three weeks. The clutch size was two (28).
PARENTAL CARE:
The following information is derived from only one record of
successful nesting and is not yet complete. Both the male and female
took care of the young in the nest for about 20 days. One chick
fledged but the other was observed one day and the following day was
missing. Speculations on the fate of the lost chick include possible
predation or death due to weakness. The surviving fledging was
observed with its parents the day after fledging from the nest, but no
other information was provided on duration of family bond (28).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The current population is estimated at 140 birds (23). It is
thought to be limited by habitat modification (especially by feral
pigs), avian disease, predation from introduced mammals, competition
for food resources from introduced birds and invertebrates (especially
Japanese white-eyes and garlic snails), and possibly reduction in
genetic variability (15,23).
There is no population density objective, but population density
for po'ouli was estimated in 1975 at 76 birds/ square km (15), in 1980
at 11 birds/ square km (23), in 1981 at 15 birds/ square km, and in
1985 at 8 birds/ square km. These estimates show a steady decline of
90 percent from 1975 to 1985 (15). Incidental observations seem to
support this density decline (23).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Po'ouli frequently form small mixed-species flocks, most often
with the Maui creeper (Paroreomyza montana) and sometimes including
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
the Maui parrotbill (Pseudonestor xanthophrys) and nuku-pu'u
(Hemignathus lucidus affinus). This may facilitate predator avoidance
and enhance foraging efficiency (08,15,25).
A possible species interrelationship which may have a direct
impact on the po'ouli is interspecific competition for food resources
from introduced birds especially Japanese white-eyes (Zosterops
japonicus) and introduced invertebrates like the garlic snail
(Oxychilus alliarius) (15,23). Introduced mammals like mongooses
(Herpestes auropunctatus), feral cats (Felis catus), Polynesian rats
(Rattus exulans) and black rats (Rattus rattus) have been involved in
the decline of many forest birds and could have a direct impact on
the po'ouli as predators (15,23). Avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum)
and avian pox (Poxvirus avium) carried by mosquitoes (Culex
quinquefasciatus) could also have a detrimental impact on po'ouli.
Many Hawaiian birds are susceptible to these diseases and so it has
been suggested that the po'ouli's distribution is at least in part
determined by disease (15,23).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Invertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The limited distribution and small population size of the
po'ouli are probably the result of many factors occurring over an
extended period of time. Fossil records from the dry leeward side of
East Maui near Ulupalakua suggest that the po'ouli had a wider
distribution (and probably higher numbers) before Polynesian contact
(ca. 400 A.D.). The mature dry mesophytic forests in this area may
have been their optimal habitat, but these forests have been almost
totally altered to non-native plant communities through human and
feral ungulate activity (15).
More recent factors that have contributed to the current status
of the po'ouli are thought to be habitat modification, predation,
avian disease, interspecific competition and gene pool impoverishment
(15).
Habitat modification in the Hanawi area is due mostly to feral
pigs, which apparently did not significantly penetrate the native
forests until the introduction of the European domestic pig (23).
Rooting and wallowing activities of feral pigs cause extensive damage
in native ecosystems by radically altering the understory, hindering
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
forest regeneration, facilitating invasion of introduced pest plants,
and inducing severe soil erosion, especially on steep slopes (15,23).
In addition, pig activity generates mosquito breeding sites, which may
assist mosquitoes in establishig populations at higher elevations.
Pigs also destroy microhabitats critical to the life cycle of land
snails and other invertebrates that are major food items for po'ouli
(23).
Po'ouli densities estimated at the Hanawi site in 1975, 1981, and
1985 appear to show a steady decline. Correlated with this trend was
an increase in pig damage in the understory (15,23). The authors
suggest that this factor is an extreme threat to the survival of the
po'ouli and recommend removal of pigs permanently from this and
adjacent areas (23).
Goats generally occupy forest edges and shrubland habitat where
they cause great damage to drier and more open Hawaiian ecosystems.
They are a major problem in Haleakala National Park and adjacent areas
where they devastate alpine grassland and subalpine scrubland, and
also enter high-elevation wet forests. The advance of goats into
upper wet forest edges on Maui threatens forest birds including the
po'ouli (23).
Introduced predators have been clearly implicated in the decline
of many forest birds. Of these predators, the black rat (Rattus
rattus), Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), feral cats (Felis catus),
and the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) may affect the
po'ouli.
Substantial populations of the black rat and the Polynesian rat
occur as high as 2,000 m (ca. 6700 ft) elevation in the Hanawi area,
and unidentified feathers have been found in the stomachs of both
species. It has been argued that the black rat's arboreal habits
affect native birds through nest predation. Cats occur in the Hanawi
area and are known to be effective predators on native birds. The
small Indian mongoose may be an occasional predator because of its
ground feeding habits. The low foraging height and frequent use of
understory substrates would seem to make the po'ouli more vulnerable
to predation than canopy feeders (15,23).
Because the endemic Hawaiian avifauna evolved in the absence of
many disease factors prevalent in continental areas, numerous species
show marked susceptibility to (and occasionally demonstrate mortality
from) introduced avian diseases, particularly avian malaria
(Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox (Poxvirus avium) (15). Malaria
and pox were probably introduced to the Hawaiian Islands via
introduced birds (23). The primary vector for these diseases is the
mosquito, especially ornithophilous night-biting mosquito (Culex
quinquefasciatus). The lower elevational range for the po'ouli is
near the upper limit for mosquitoes, suggesting that its distribution
is at least in part determined by disease (15,23).
Interspecific competition for food resources occurs to some
extent from other birds and from introduced invertebrates. Other
birds that feed on invertebrates include Japanese white-eyes
(Zosterops japonicus) and several other native species. Competition
from native birds in the past has probably been compensated for by the
honeycreepers evolutionary specialization.
The Japanese white-eye was introduced in the 1930's and is the
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
most abundant and widespread omnivorous passerine in Hawaiian forests.
It has increased in numbers on East Maui above 1,500 m (ca. 5000 ft)
elevation since 1967 and has been found to be the most significant
competitor of native passerines for food resources (15,23).
The garlic snail (Oxychilus alliarius), an introduced snail, is
abundant and ubiquitous in montane rainforests on Maui and may be a
very effective competitor for food resources with the po'ouli. The
garlic snail is suspected of preying on the native land snails and
contributing to the decline of snail populations, particularly ground
dwelling species. Since a major food source for po'ouli is native
snails and po'ouli occasionally forage on or near the ground (05), it
has been suggested that a major portion of the original resource base
is no longer present. Hence, the garlic snail may have a major impact
on the po'ouli (15,23).
Since the fossil record suggests that the po'ouli once had a
wider distribution and higher numbers, gene pool impoverishment may
also be a limiting factor. The population has probably lost some of
its original genetic variability which could lead to reduced ability
to adapt to novel environmental perturbations, such as pig activity
or introduced competitors (15).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 33 pp.
The planning of recovery actions for the Po'ouli suffers from an
absence of historical information and from a sketchy knowledge of the
bird's life history and ecology. Captive breeding of this species is
given low priority by the Maui Forest Birds Recovery Plan. The
Recovery Plan states as its principal recovery action the securing of
essential habitat (i.e., land acquisition and land zoning), to be
managed for forest birds. All essential habitat lies on the upper
slopes of Haleakala within the boundary of the Haleakala National Park
or on state or private lands (including The Nature Conservancy lands)
zoned as a Conservation District. Yet the very small, localized
population of po'ouli only occurs on state lands within the essential
habitat. Management of habitat for forest birds should include
control of feral ungulates, rodents, mosquitoes (disease vectors), and
alien plants. Human access should be controlled. Badly needed is
further research and censusing of the po'ouli. Not mentioned in the
recovery plan is the recent incursion of the garlic snail
(Oxycheilus sp.), a predator of and competitor with small native land
snails on which the po'ouli feeds. The impact of this alien snail on
the po'ouli's food base should be assessed. The recovery plan
recommends public education to improve support for recovery programs.
Lack of management of essential forest bird habitat on these
State lands remains a serious threat to the po'ouli. Declaration of
the Hanawi Natural Area Reserve secures all lands within the species
range. Though de facto wilderness, these forests suffer from
browsing and rooting by feral pigs, from incursion by alien plants,
and from other factors leading to the degradation of forests as
habitat for native birds.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
A captive breeding program including a sperm bank is being
planned by the State and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and may
include the po'ouli among the species propagated.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 American Ornithologists' Union. 1982. Thirty-fourth supplement to
the American Ornithologists' Union checklist of North American
birds. Suppl. to the Auk 99(3):1CC-16CC.
02 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Checklist of North American
birds. Sixth ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
03 Anonymous. 1977. Corrigenda. 'Elepaio 37(11):139.
04 Association of Systematics Collections. n.d. Checklist of birds
of the United States and the U.S. Territories. Prepared for East.
Energy and Land Use Team, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Kearneysville, WV.
05 Baldwin, P.H., and T.L.C. Casey. 1983. A preliminary list of
foods of the po'o-uli. 'Elepaio 43(7):53-56.
06 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian birds: specimens
in museum collections. Avian History Rept. 2, Coop. Natl. Park
Res. Studies Unit, Univ. of HI, Honolulu.
07 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife. Second ed. The Univ.
Press of HI, Honolulu.
08 Casey, T.L.C. 1974. New bird in paradise. Defenders
49(2):120-131.
09 Casey, T.L.C., and J.D. Jacobi. 1974. A new genus and species of
bird from the island of Maui (Passeriformes: Drepanididae).
Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Occ. Papers 24(12):215-226.
10 Conant, S. 1981. Recent observations of endangered birds in
Hawaii's National Parks. 'Elepaio 41(7):55-61.
11 Foote, D.E., E.L. Hill, S. Nakamura, and F. Stephens. 1972. Soil
survey of island of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, State of
Hawaii. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Soil Conserv. Serv. Wash., D.C.
12 Jacobi, J.D., and T.L.C. Casey. 1974. New species of bird
discovered on Maui, Hawaii. 'Elepaio 34(8):83-84.
13 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai forest birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 33 pp.
14 Marshall, D.B. 1975. Report of the American Ornithologists' Union
committee on conservation 1974-1975. Suppl. to the Auk
92(4):1B-16B.
15 Mountainspring, S., T.L.C. Casey, C.B. Kepler, and J.M. Scott.
In press. Ecology, behavior and conservation of the po'o-uli.
Wilson Bull.
16 Pratt, H.D. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic avifauna
of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. thesis, Louisiana State Univ.,
Baton Rouge, LA.
17 Pratt, H.D., P.L. Bruner and D.G. Berrett. 1987. A field guide to
the birds of Hawaii and the tropical Pacific. Princeton Univ.
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18 Pukui, M.K., and S.H. Elbert. 1986. Hawaiian dictionary. Rev.
and enlarged ed. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
19 Pyle, R.L. 1977. Preliminary list of the birds of Hawaii.
'Elepaio 37(10):110-121.
20 Pyle, R.L. 1979. Preliminary list of the birds of Hawaii,
Amendment No. 1. 'Elepaio 40(4):55-58.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PO'OULI
Species Id ESIS101040
Date 14 MAR 96
21 Pyle, R.L. 1983. Checklist of the birds of Hawaii. 'Elepaio
44(5):47-58.
22 Pyle, R.L. 1986. Recent observation August - November, 1985.
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23 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
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dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian biology
No. 9. Cooper Ornithol. Soc., Lawrence, KS.
24 Shallenberger, R.J. 1974. Field notes. 'Elepaio 35(2):20.
25 Shallenberger, R.J. 1986. Hawaii's birds. Third ed. 2nd Rev.
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26 The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii. 1986. 1986 biological inventory
of the Waikamoi Preserve. The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii,
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27 Titcomb, M., and W.C. Gagne. 1976. List of Hawaiian bird names.
'Elepaio 36(10):117-126.
28 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. News release, Region 1.
Portland, OR.
29 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Endangered and threatened
wildlife and plants. Reprint of 50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12, April 10.
Wash., D.C. 32 pp.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Casey, T.L.C., and J.D Jacobi. 1974. A new genus and species of
bird from the island of Maui (Passeriformes: Drepanididae).
Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Occas. Pap. 24(12):215-226.
02 Conant, S. 1981. Recent observations of endangered birds in
Hawaii's National Parks. 'Elepaio 41(7):55-61.
03 Jacobi, J.D., and T.L.C. Casey. 1974. New species of bird
discovered on Maui, Hawaii. 'Elepaio 34(8):83-84.
04 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Birds
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 33 pp.
05 Marshall, D.B. 1975. Report of the American Ornithologists' Union
committee on conservation 1974-1975. Suppl. to the Auk
92(4):1B-16B.
06 Mountainspring, S., T.L.C. Casey, C.B. Kepler, and J.M. Scott.
In press. Ecology, behavior and conservation of the po'ouli.
Wilson Bull.
07 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biol. No. 9
Cooper Ornithol. Soc., Lawrence, KS.
08 Shallenberger, R.J. 1974. Field notes. 'Elepaio 35(2):18-20.
09 The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii. 1986. 1986 biological inventory
of the Waikamoi Preserve. The Nature Conserv. of HI, Honolulu.
References - 2