(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - CREEPER, O'AHU
OTHER COMMON NAMES - CREEPER, O'AHU; CREEPER, HAWAIIAN; 'ALAUWAHIO and O'AHU; 'AKIKIKI; KAKAWAHIE; 'ALAUWAHIO; 'ALAUAHIO
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PAROREOMYZA,
SPECIES AND SSP - MACULATA,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PAROREOMYZA MACULATA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
O'ahu Creeper
Paroreomyza maculata (Cabanis, 1851)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
Male O'ahu creepers (Paroreomyza maculata) are small birds, olive
green above and golden yellow below. Females and immatures are gray
above, yellowish white below with prominent white wing bars (15).
O'ahu creepers have dark lores with a prominent pale superciliary
stripe (15). The O'ahu creeper's bill is straight, in contrast to the
decurved bill of the similar O'ahu 'amakihi.
"Creepers" in Hawai'i were first allocated among several genera
(16,17), but soon a consensus developed that these birds were closely
related among themselves (11,18). The O'ahu creeper was originally
named Himatione maculata by Cabanis, 1851, Mus. Heineanum, 1, p. 100
(footnote), (O'ahu) (02). Early 20th century authors classified the
forms as five species of the genus Oreomyza. Amadon (19) lumped all
five creepers as subspecies of one species, Loxops maculata. Munro
(20) placed all five as separate species within the genus Paroreomyza.
In a systematic study of the family, Pratt (03) recognized five
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
creeper species in two genera (Oreomystis and Paroreomyza). This
classification has been adopted by the AOU and other authors (05).
Pratt's classification identifies species of Oreomystis on Kaua'i
(O. bairdi) and Hawai'i (O. mana). He recognized three species of the
genus Paroreomyza on the central Hawaiian Islands (P. maculata -
O'ahu; P. flammea - Moloka'i; and P. montana - Lana'i and Mau'i). In
its original listing of the O'ahu creeper, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Serivce listed it at the subspecific level as Oreomystis maculata
maculata. It is now listed at the specific level as Paroreomyza
maculata.
One subspecies of the O'ahu creeper is known as the Hawaiian
creeper (on the island of O'ahu). This species is also known by the
Hawaiian name 'alauwahio (02), O'ahu 'alauwahio (02), 'akikiki,
kakawahie, and 'alauahio.
Illustrations of the O'ahu creeper can be found in several,
publications (05,09,13,15,16,17,20,21,22).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The O'ahu creeper (Paroreomyza maculata) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found including the
State of Hawai'i. Critical Habitat has not been designated.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Hawai'i Dept. of Land and Natural
Resources, Div. of Forestry and Wildlife
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The O'ahu creeper is not listed by CITES. It is listed as
Endangered by IUCN and is listed by the U.S. in the Convention on
Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere
Annex (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore. It is now the rarest bird sought on O'ahu by bird
watchers.
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Proposed listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
74/01/04:39 FR 01171/01178 - Relisting
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five-year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25522/25525 - Notice of five-year review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
All reliable sightings of O'ahu creepers (Paroreomyza
maculata) in the last 40 years have been at elevations between
100-2300 feet, typically in wet and mesic forest dominated by ohi'a
(Metrosideros) and koa (Acacia) (09). Historically, the native forest
of the O'ahu creeper was entirely evergreen, however, today there are
areas that have been invaded by deciduous exotics. Most sightings
have been on ridge trails, running generally southwest to northeast
along mountainous valleys. This fact probably reflects the relative
accessibility of these trails, not the preferred distribution of the
species (09). Three sightings during recent intensive surveys within
Ko'olau Range valleys were all on valley slopes between the ridge
trails and valley floor (09). Forest understory in areas where birds
have been sighted includes various native shrubs and fern. No
creepers have been sighted recently along valley floors where exotic
trees typically predominate (09).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Molluscs
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Relatively little is known about the O'ahu creeper's (Paroreomyza
maculata) food habits. Perkins (11) noted that all Hawaiian creepers
obtain most of their predominantly insect food from the trunks and
limbs of forest trees and shrubs. He listed caterpillars, spiders,
myriapods, slugs, beetles, and moths as typical creeper food. Carabid
beetles rarely collected by entomologists were found in quantity in
O'ahu creeper stomachs (11). Field observations in recent O'ahu
creeper sightings indicate that these birds regularly move up and down
trunks and limbs, often in "creeper like" fashion, pecking and probing
at and under bark in serch of insect food (09). Birds tend to remain
within the interior branches and trunk area, rather than feeding in
the canopy. Some recent observations have also been made in the
vicinity of slime fluxes on koa trees, presumably a site where insects
are attracted (09). No observations have been recorded of O'ahu
creepers feeding on nectar.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Nothing is known of the O'ahu creeper's home range or
territoriality.
PERIODICITY:
O'ahu creeper sightings have been recorded at virtually all
daylight hours (09). Presumably, the species is active only in
daylight hours. Virtually nothing is known regarding seasonal
variation in its habitats. The only recorded O'ahu creeper nests were
found in January (12).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
There is no evidence to indicate that the O'ahu creeper is
migratory. However, several of the recent creeper sightings have been
on trails that are frequently traveled by birders. The infrequency
of sightings on these popular trails suggests that birds of this
species may move in and out of these areas with some regularity (09).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The O'ahu creeper appears to inhabit only forested areas,
dominated by native ohi'a (Metrosideros) and koa (Acacia) trees.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Only two O'ahu creeper nests have been reported in the literature
(12). An incomplete nest was found on January 29, 1901 and a second
nest, with two eggs, was collected the following day (12). Both were
found in the Wai'anae mountains. The first nest was on the top of a
small bush and was made of club moss, lichens, spider webs, leaves and
rootlets. The second nest was 20 feet high in a kukui tree and was
made of moss and rootlets.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Based upon observations of nests and a single observation of a
bird carrying nest material, a winter (Jan. - April) nesting period is
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
likely (09,12). However, Perkins (11) reported sightings of immature
birds in all seasons. With the exception of the nest found with two
eggs (12), nothing is known about other reproductive characteristics
of the species.
PARENTAL CARE:
Nothing is known about parental care in this species.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Recent observations confirm the extreme rarity of this species
(09). During over 200 person-days of field work, most within known
O'ahu creeper habitat, only three reliable sightings were made (09).
Even reliable sightings on O'ahu's most popular forest trails are very
infrequent. Current limiting factors probably include competition
with exotic birds, disease and the inability of birds in this
critically low and dispersed population to reproduce successfully (05,
06,09). Predation from mongooses, rats and feral cats may also be an
important limiting factor (05,08).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) probably represents
a significant historic and present threat to the O'ahu creeper (05,
06). White-eyes compete for food and shelter and provide a host for
avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox (Poxvirus avium)
(06,07,14). These disease organisms are believed to explain the
virtual absence of creepers with similar habits at elevations below
3000 feet on other Hawaiian islands (06,07,13,14). The obligate
vector for malaria and the facultative vector for pox in these areas
is the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Habitat loss has contributed to the precarious status of the
O'ahu creeper (Paroreomyza maculata). Lowland forest on O'ahu was
lost to slash and burn agriculture of the Hawaiian culture (04). The
process of forest conversion spread into even higher elevations after
the arrival of European man (05). Forestry and grazing practices
converted native forest lands and uncontrolled exotic plants and
animals reached virtually all elevations on O'ahu (09,10). No habitat
on O'ahu has been untouched by feral pigs, rats, mongoose and a host
of aggressive, weedy plants (05,08,09,10). Presently, the population
may be limited in part by its very low numbers and subsequent limited
interaction of potential breeding pairs. Some valleys within its
present and former range have been severely altered by construction of
highways, powerlines, urbanization and the use of heavy equipment
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
associated with these activities. Military training activities also
disturb O'ahu's forest birds and their habitat, due to
ordnance-related fires, accelerated invasion of exotic plants and low
altitude helicopter flights (10).
With most of the forested habitat confined to elevations below
3000 feet, avian competitors and malarial hosts probably contributed
substantially to the rapid decline of the O'ahu creeper in the last
100 years (06,07,09). The Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus)
probably represents a significant historic and present threat to the
O'ahu creeper (05,06). White-eyes compete for food and shelter and
provide a host for avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox
(Poxvirus avium) (06,07,14). These disease organisms are believed to
explain the virtual absence of creepers with similar habits at
elevations below 3000 feet on other Hawaiian islands (06,07,13,14).
The obligate vector for malaria and the facultative vector for pox in
these areas is the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus.
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
No recovery plan is yet available for the O'ahu creeper.
Of the birds listed as endangered in the Hawaiian Islands, the
O'ahu creeper is the only species for which a recovery plan has not
been written. Indeed, this creeper remains one of the most neglected
endangered species with regard to both research and conservation. The
rarity of the O'ahu creeper and its close resemblance to the
relatively common O'ahu race of 'amakihi (Hemignathus virens chloris),
have lead to much confusion as to the true status of the bird. A
first step towards recovery of this creeper would be to locate a
population, towards which recovery actions could be applied. Recovery
actions would be similar to those for other species of creeper,
specifically: Identifying, securing habitat through land acquisition,
cooperative agreement, easement, zoning, or other means, and improving
essential habitat; research on the species' biology; and captive
breeding. Habitat improvement would include controlling exotic
plants, feral pigs, rats, and disease vectors (mosquitoes).
No recovery actions have been taken. Much of the creeper's
habitat lies within conservation districts or military reserves but
otherwise receives no special protection. A breeding program for
endangered Hawaiian birds is being planned by the State, USFWS, and
several mainland zoos. The program may include the O'ahu creeper
among the species propagated.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian birds: Specimens
in museum collections. Avian History Rept. 2, Coop. Natl. Park
Res. Studies Unit, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
02 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North
American birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
03 Pratt, H.D., Jr. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. dissertation, Louisiana
State Univ., Baton Rouge.
04 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 365.
05 Berger, A.J. 1981. Hawaiian birdlife, 2nd ed. Univ. Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu. 270 pp.
06 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
07 van Riper S.G. and C. van Riper III. 1985. A summary of known
parasites and diseases recorded from the avifuna of the Hawaiian
Islands. Pages 298-371. IN: Hawaii's terrestrial ecosystems:
Preservation and management. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, eds.
Univ. Press of Hawaii, Honolulu.
08 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
Rattus rattus L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
09 Shallenberger, R.J. 1978. Avifaunal survey in the central Koolau
Range, Oahu. Ahuimanu Productions. Unpubl. rept.
10 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. Bird and mammal study of army lands in
Hawaii. Ahuimanu Productions, 3 vol. Unpubl. rept.
11 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, part 4. D. Sharp, ed. Univ. Press Cambridge,
U.K.
12 Bryan, W.A. 1905. Notes on birds of the Waianae Mountains.
B.P. Bishop Mus. Occ. Pap. 2(3):37-49.
13 Scott, J.M., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler.
1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their
dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Stud. Avian Biol. 9.
14 van Riper, C., III, S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1982.
The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
tech. Rept. 47, Coop. Nat. Res. Stud. Unit, Univ. of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
15 Shallenberger, R.J. and H.D. Pratt. 1978. Recent observations and
field identification fo the Oahu creeper (Loxops maculata
maculata). Elepaio 38:135-140.
16 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiiensis: The
Birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
17 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 vol. R.H. Porter, London.
18 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands. Thos. B.
Thrum, Honolulu.
19 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves:Drepaniidae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:151-262.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species CREEPER, O'AHU
Species Id ESIS101046
Date 14 MAR 96
20 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ., Honolulu.
21 Shallenberger, R.J. 1984. Hawaii's birds, 3rd rev. ed. Hawaii
Audubon Soc., Honolulu.
22 Peterson, R.T. 1961. A field guide to western birds, 2nd rev. ed.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Shallenberger, R.J. and H.D. Pratt. 1978. Recent observations and
field identification fo the Oahu creeper (Loxops maculata
maculata). Elepaio 38:135-140.
02 Shallenberger, R.J. 1978. Avifaunal survey in the central Koolau
Range, Oahu. Ahuimanu Productions. Unpubl. rept.
03 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata. Pages 365-466. IN: Fauna
Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1, part 4. D. Sharp, ed. Univ. Press Cambridge,
U.K.
04 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ., Honolulu.
05 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 vol. R.H. Porter, London.
06 Bryan, W.A. 1905. Notes on birds of the Waianae Mountains.
B.P. Bishop Mus. Occ. Pap. 2(3):37-49.
07 Shallenberger, R.J. 1977. Bird and mammal study of army lands in
Hawai'i. Ahuimanu Productions, 3 vol. Unpubl. rept.
08 Pyle, R., Ph.D. 1987. Pers. comm. Hawaii Audubon Society,
Honolulu.
09 Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 365.
References - 2