(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - PELICAN, BROWN

OTHER COMMON NAMES - PELICAN, BROWN;ALCATRAZ;ALCATRAZ MORENO;GOSSIER, GRAND;KODJO;PELICAN;PELICAN, GALAPAGOS;PELICAN, BROWN, AMERICAN;PELICAN, BROWN, CALIFORNIA;PELICAN, BROWN, EASTERN;PELICAN, BROWN, PERUVIAN;PELICAN, BROWN, WEST INDIES;PELICAN, BLUE;PELICAN, COMMON;PELICAN and GRAY;PELECANO;PELICANO

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Birds

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - PELECANIFORMES,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - PELECANIDAE,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PELECANUS,

SPECIES AND SSP - OCCIDENTALIS,

SCIENTIFIC NAME - PELECANUS OCCIDENTALIS

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES -

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Brown Pelican

Pelecanus occidentalis Linnaeus, 1766

KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird

PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Pelecaniformes FAMILY: Pelecanidae

Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) are included among the
Pelecaniformes, an order characterized, in part, by birds having a
gular pouch and fully webbed (totipalmate) feet (93). As members of
the family Pelicanidae, they are recognized by their large size,
impressive wingspan, short legs, distinctive long, hooked bill and
flexible lower mandible from which the highly expandable gular pouch
is suspended. This large bird has a total length of 114 to 137 cm and
a wing span of 2 m. Adults have a black belly with gray wings and
back; 22 tail feathers. The head is yellow from early autumn until
late spring when it turns white. The neck is white in the fall and
winter, but becomes chestnut brown during the breeding season. The
sexes are similar in appearance. There are six subspecies, 3 in the
U.S.
The wing structure of the brown pelican allows for efficient
soaring at low speed as well as takeoffs from a level water surface
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

(62). Both the aspect ratio and wing loading are moderate; distal
primaries are emarginated forming conspicuous wing slots. Energetic
costs of flying are reduced by a series of behavioral adaptations
including: soaring on thermals of rising air, travelling in
V-formation, and gliding low against cushions of air in wave troughs
(62).
Plumages of male and female brown pelicans are alike, however,
there is a slight sexual dimorphism in size; males average larger
(93). Plumage and coloration of soft parts varies with breeding
stage, age class, and among subspecies (68,93). In the United States,
nonbreeding adults in definitive basic plumage have yellow heads and
white necks. Underparts are a mixture of grays, dark browns, and
silvery grays. New feathers on certain dorsal tracts appear frosty.
Wing primaries are blackish brown, tail is frosted pale gray. Breast
and belly feathers are dark brown or slate gray, sometimes with faint
white shafts. The wing lining is patterned with gray coverts
emarginated with varying widths of dark brown. Legs and feet are
gray-black (93).
Dramatic changes in appearance of adults are generally correlated
with the timing of breeding activities (118). A pre-alternate molt
results in replacement of the head and neck feathers prior to the
breeding season. The hindneck becomes dark brown (P.o. californicus)
or chestnut (P.o. carolinensis), the head molts to white, and the
small diamond-shaped yellow patch at the base of the foreneck becomes
more distinct with the growth of dark feathers above it. Colors of
fleshy parts, which are more intense in adults than subadults, become
especially vivid in the early stages of reproduction (08). The distal
portion of the upper mandible gains red, pink, and orange coloration
late in the winter; the gray tissue surrounding the light blue eye
becomes reddish pink (08). The California brown pelican typically has
a bright red gular pouch (proximal portion) during pre-breeding and
courtship, rapidly fading to orange the yellow once the eggs are laid,
and to more drab colors as young rearing progresses. The red pouch is
a feature which is rare in the eastern brown pelican (gular region
becomes greenish) (128), and has not frequently been noted in other
subspecies. By the time the young are 2/3 grown, adults are well into
their pre-basic molt (including wing, tail, and body feathers), and
appear worn and drab (06). At this time they also undergo a
supplemental molt that gives the white head a flecked ("salt and
pepper") appearance.
Fledged young-of-the-year are generally brownish-gray with white
bellies (93). Heads are medium to pale gray brown with soft feathers
that appear down-like. Wing coverts and back feathers are dull
grayish brown with rufous tips that quickly become pale buff with
wear. Tail and flight feathers are not as dark as older birds. A
gradual molt takes place until adult plumage is reached at 3-5 years
of age (118). Five different age classes can be identified based on
plumage (118). During intermediate, subadult stages the belly becomes
mottled, sides of the head begin to turn white, and appearance is
generally scruffy. Females are thought to attain adult plumage
earlier than males (118).
Six subspecies of brown pelicans have been described (132);
geographic variation in size is the primary distinguishing feature.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

Listed from largest to smallest, they include: P.o. thagus Molina,
1782 (Peruvian brown pelican); P.o. urinator Wetmore, 1945 (Galapagos
pelican); P.o. californicus Ridgway, 1884 (California brown pelican);
P.o. carolinensis Gemelin, 1789 (Eastern brown pelican); P.o. murphyi
Wetmore, 1945 (no known common name); and P.o. occidenatalis Linnaeus,
1766 (West Indies brown pelican). P.o. thagus has a wingspan of up to
7 1/2 feet and average male weight of 7.0 kg, contrasting to an
average male weight of 2.4 kg for P.o. occidentalis (132). Separation
of the races in between these extremes is not always clear.
In th U.S.: P.o. carolinensis Gmelin - head and neck white, the neck
feathers velvety; pale yellow wash on head, on small tuft or crest on
upper nape, and at base of foreneck. Bill grayish, tinged brownish,
and spotted distally and irregularly with scarlet, including the tip
of upper mandible. Iris pale yellow. Underparts breast and belly
blackish brown, usually with faint white shafts. Tail dark grayish
brown, frosted pale gray. Wing primaries blackish brown, basal half
of outer web frosted gray. Male: bill 280-348 mm., av. 319, wing
500-550, av. 526, tail 123-158, av. 136, tarsus 70-89.4, av. 80.5;
Female: bill 280-333, av. 294, wing 483-528, av. 501, tail 122-153,
av. 136, tarsus 68-83.7; common pelican of east and Gulf coasts (93).
P.o. occidentalis Linnaeus - smaller than preceding, breeding birds
have slightly darker under-surface; Male: bill 255-306 mm, av. 288,
wing 461-496, av. 478, tail 114-130, av. 126, tarsus 68-78, av. 71.2;
Female: bill 251-286, av. 261, wing 448-486, av. 462, tail 114-128,
av. 124, tarsus 58-77.2, av. 67.1; central and south section of West
Indies; recorded once from Pensacola, FL; Wt. av. 2.4 kg (5 1/2 lb.)
(93). P.o. californicus Ridgway - larger than carolinensis, in adult
plumage the brown of hindneck much darker (sometimes almost black),
base of pouch reddish; Male: bill 316-372 mm, av. 347, wing 520-585,
av. 551, tail 131-198, av. 154, tarsus 76-89.3, av. 84.5; Female: bill
298-330, av. 312, wing 483-569, av. 519, tail 130-200, av. 151, tarsus
70-82.6, av. 77.6; west coast of California and Mexico (93).
Classification of the species has evolved gradually since 1758.
Taxonomists, for a long time, were undecided about the Galapagos
pelican, and listed it back and forth as P.o. californicus and P.o.
carolinensis before declaring it a separate subspecies (82).
Speculation persists regarding the Peruvian pelican; some believe it
to be a unique species (P. thagus Molina, 1782) (06). Wetmore (132),
Murphy (82), and Anderson and Hickey (17) further discuss taxonomic
history and subtle variations in morphology of subspecies. The genus
Pelecanus was first used by Linnaeus and applied to the European
pelican. Synonyms include: P.o. californicus Ridgway - Pelecanus
fuscus, Pelecanus californicus, Pelecanus occidentalis, brown pelican,
and gray pelican (144); for P.o. carolinensis Gmelin - Pelecanus
fuscus, Pelecanus carolinensis (05), Pelecanus occidentalis (05), blue
pelican (145), American brown pelican; for P.o. occidentalis Linnaeus
- Pelecanus fuscus; Pelecanus occidentalis (05). The genus
Leptopelicanus Reichenbach, 1853 has also been applied to this species
(=P. fuscus) (05). The brown pelican (common pelican or simply
pelican) is also known as the alcatraz or alcatraz moreno, pelecano or
pelicano, kodjo, and grand gossier within its range outside of the
U.S.
Museum specimens of the species are plentiful and extensive egg
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

collections exist. The largest and best collection of brown pelican
skins is in the Los Angeles County Museum, all other important
collections have been cataloged by Schreiber (104). Many eggs have
been collected for analysis of pesticide residues. See Anderson and
Hickey (17) for egg measurements. No known field guide or references
published to date, give complete adequate descriptions of pelican
plumages; however, Schreiber et al. (118) discusses and illustrates
details of molt in depth. Photographs or pictures of brown pelicans
can be found in several publications (82,93,108,129; Refer to the
field R-Biology).

Taxonomy - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

STATUS

Coded Status

U.S. Misc. Caribbean Islands; Federal Endangered
Florida; Officially Listed
Georgia; State Listed
Louisiana; Federally Endangered
Louisiana; State Recognized
Mississippi; Federal Endangered
Mississippi; State Listed
North Carolina; State Listed

Puerto Rico; Federal Endangered
Puerto Rico; State Listed
South Carolina; State Listed

Virgin Islands; Federal Endangered
Virgin Islands; State Recognized
Virginia; State Listed

E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory

Puerto Rico; Federal Endangered
Puerto Rico; State Listed
South Carolina; State Listed

Virgin Islands; Federal Endangered
Virgin Islands; State Recognized
Virginia; State Listed
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

Coded Status

E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory

Puerto Rico; Federal Endangered
Puerto Rico; State Listed
South Carolina; State Listed

Virgin Islands; Federal Endangered
Virgin Islands; State Recognized
Virginia; State Listed

E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) has been designated an
Endangered species throughout its entire range except the U.S.
Atlantic coast, Florida, and Alabama, pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884;
16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The species has Endangered status
in the the States of CA, LA, MS, OR, TX, and WA, the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico, the West Indies, the Virgin Islands, and Central and
South America. Critical Habitat has not been designated for this
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

species.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13).

RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:

USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
BIA -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Bureau of Indian Affairs
lands.
BLM -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control (43 CFR 4140). Also
responsible for management/recovery on Bureau of Land
Management lands.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
USFS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Forest Service lands. The
Forest Service is responsible for integrating
management, protection, and conservation of Federally
listed species into the Forest Planning process
(36 CFR 219.19 and 219.20). Management practices that
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

would cause detrimental changes in water temperature
or composition, water course blockage, or sediment
deposits within 100 feet of the edges of perennial
streams, lakes or other bodies of water are prohibited
(36 CFR 219.27(e)).

All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.

STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:

STATE: California, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North
Carolina, Oregon, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, South
Carolina, Texas, Virginia, and Washington.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered. (FL) Threatened.
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (CA) Dept. of Fish and Game;
(GA) Dept. of Nat. Resour., Game and Fish
Div.;
(FL) Game and Freshwater Fish Comm.;
(MS) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv.;
(NC) Wildl. Resour. Comm.;
(OR) Dept. of Fish and Wildl.;
(PR) Dept. of Nat. Resour.;
(SC) Wildl. and Marine Resour. Dept.;
(TX) Parks and Wildl. Dept.;
(VA) State Marine Resour. Comm.;
(WA) Dept. of Game.
STATE STATUTE: (CA) Endang. Sp. Act, Fish and Game Code, Chapt.
1.5, Article 1, Sec. 2050;
(GA) Rules and Regs. of State of GA, 391-4-13-.09
Jan. 11, 1981;
(FL) Rule 39-27.04 FL Admin. Code, July, 1983;
(MS) Public Notice No. 2156, Eff. Sept. 1, 1981;
(NC) 15 NC Admin. Code 10 I.0003, Eff. July 28,
1979;
(OR) Revised Stat. 498.026;
(PR) Regs. to Govern the Mgmnt. of Threaten. and
Endang. Sp. in the Commonwealth of PR, 1985;
(SC) Regs. 123-150;
(TX) 31 TX Admin. Code, Sec. 57.133
(127.30.09.003), July 1977;
(VA) Code of VA 29-230 to 29-237;
(WA) Admin. Code 232-12-014, June 1, 1981.

STATE: Louisiana and the Commonwealth of the Virgin Islands.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered.
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (LA) Dept. of Wildl. and Fish;
(VI) Dept. of Conserv. and Cultur. Aff.
STATE STATUTE: (LA) Stat. Annot. 56:1001 to 56:1907;
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

(VI) Title 3, Chapt. 22, VI Code of Laws.

INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The brown pelican is listed by the U.S. in the Convention on
Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere
Annex (1970). This species was also listed by Ecuador (1967) and the
Dominican Republic (1941) in the Western Hemisphere Annex.

ECONOMIC STATUSES:
None.

Status - 5 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
COASTAL
OCEANIC

LAND USE -
Residential
Commercial and Services
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and Util
Industrial and Commercial Complexes
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Bays and Estuaries
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Dry Salt Flats
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
Transitional Areas

NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES

NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC

Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal SB4
Riverine, tidal SB3
Riverine, tidal SB2
Riverine, tidal SB1
Riverine, tidal RS2
Riverine, tidal RS1
Riverine, tidal RB2
Riverine, tidal RB1
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal FL4
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Riverine, tidal AB5
Riverine, tidal AB4
Riverine, tidal AB3
Riverine, tidal AB2
Riverine, tidal AB1

Estuarine, intertidal SS7
Estuarine, intertidal SS6
Estuarine, intertidal SS5
Estuarine, intertidal SS4
Estuarine, intertidal SS3
Estuarine, intertidal SS1
Estuarine, intertidal SB3
Estuarine, intertidal SB2
Habitat Associations - 1
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, intertidal SB1
Estuarine, intertidal RS3
Estuarine, intertidal RS2
Estuarine, intertidal RS1
Estuarine, intertidal RF3
Estuarine, intertidal RF2
Estuarine, intertidal FO7
Estuarine, intertidal FO6
Estuarine, intertidal FO5
Estuarine, intertidal FO4
Estuarine, intertidal FO3
Estuarine, intertidal FO1
Estuarine, intertidal FL6
Estuarine, intertidal FL5
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal EM6
Estuarine, intertidal EM5
Estuarine, intertidal EM4
Estuarine, intertidal EM3
Estuarine, intertidal EM2
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, intertidal AB2
Estuarine, intertidal AB1
Estuarine, subtidal UB4
Estuarine, subtidal UB3
Estuarine, subtidal UB2
Estuarine, subtidal UB1
Estuarine, subtidal RF3
Estuarine, subtidal RF2
Estuarine, subtidal RB2
Estuarine, subtidal RB1
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB5
Estuarine, subtidal AB4
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Estuarine, subtidal AB1
Marine, intertidal RS3
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal RS1
Marine, intertidal RF3
Marine, intertidal RF1
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal AB2
Marine, intertidal AB1
Marine, subtidal UB4
Marine, subtidal UB3
Marine, subtidal UB2
Marine, subtidal UB1
Marine, subtidal RF3
Habitat Associations - 2
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, subtidal RF1
Marine, subtidal RB2
Marine, subtidal RB1
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
Marine, subtidal AB1

Estuarine, intertidal SS7
Estuarine, intertidal SS6
Estuarine, intertidal SS5
Estuarine, intertidal SS4
Estuarine, intertidal SS3
Estuarine, intertidal SS1
Estuarine, intertidal SB3
Estuarine, intertidal SB2
Estuarine, intertidal SB1
Estuarine, intertidal RS3
Estuarine, intertidal RS2
Estuarine, intertidal RS1
Estuarine, intertidal RF3
Estuarine, intertidal RF2
Estuarine, intertidal FO7
Estuarine, intertidal FO6
Estuarine, intertidal FO5
Estuarine, intertidal FO4
Estuarine, intertidal FO3
Estuarine, intertidal FO1
Estuarine, intertidal FL6
Estuarine, intertidal FL5
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal EM6
Habitat Associations - 3
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, intertidal EM5
Estuarine, intertidal EM4
Estuarine, intertidal EM3
Estuarine, intertidal EM2
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, intertidal AB2
Estuarine, intertidal AB1
Estuarine, subtidal UB4
Estuarine, subtidal UB3
Estuarine, subtidal UB2
Estuarine, subtidal UB1
Estuarine, subtidal RF3
Estuarine, subtidal RF2
Estuarine, subtidal RB2
Estuarine, subtidal RB1
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB5
Estuarine, subtidal AB4
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Estuarine, subtidal AB1
Marine, intertidal RS3
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal RS1
Marine, intertidal RF3
Marine, intertidal RF1
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal AB2
Marine, intertidal AB1
Marine, subtidal UB4
Marine, subtidal UB3
Marine, subtidal UB2
Marine, subtidal UB1
Marine, subtidal RF3
Marine, subtidal RF1
Marine, subtidal RB2
Marine, subtidal RB1
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
Marine, subtidal AB1

Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal SB4
Riverine, tidal SB3
Riverine, tidal SB2
Riverine, tidal SB1
Riverine, tidal RS2
Riverine, tidal RS1
Riverine, tidal RB2
Riverine, tidal RB1
Habitat Associations - 4
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal FL4
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Riverine, tidal AB5
Riverine, tidal AB4
Riverine, tidal AB3
Riverine, tidal AB2
Riverine, tidal AB1

Estuarine, intertidal SS7
Estuarine, intertidal SS6
Estuarine, intertidal SS5
Estuarine, intertidal SS4
Estuarine, intertidal SS3
Estuarine, intertidal SS1
Estuarine, intertidal SB3
Estuarine, intertidal SB2
Estuarine, intertidal SB1
Estuarine, intertidal RS3
Estuarine, intertidal RS2
Estuarine, intertidal RS1
Estuarine, intertidal RF3
Estuarine, intertidal RF2
Estuarine, intertidal FO7
Estuarine, intertidal FO6
Estuarine, intertidal FO5
Estuarine, intertidal FO4
Estuarine, intertidal FO3
Estuarine, intertidal FO1
Estuarine, intertidal FL6
Estuarine, intertidal FL5
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal EM6
Estuarine, intertidal EM5
Estuarine, intertidal EM4
Estuarine, intertidal EM3
Estuarine, intertidal EM2
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, intertidal AB2
Estuarine, intertidal AB1
Estuarine, subtidal UB4
Estuarine, subtidal UB3
Estuarine, subtidal UB2
Estuarine, subtidal UB1
Estuarine, subtidal RF3
Estuarine, subtidal RF2
Estuarine, subtidal RB2
Estuarine, subtidal RB1
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB5
Habitat Associations - 5
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, subtidal AB4
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Estuarine, subtidal AB1
Marine, intertidal RS3
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal RS1
Marine, intertidal RF3
Marine, intertidal RF1
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal AB2
Marine, intertidal AB1
Marine, subtidal UB4
Marine, subtidal UB3
Marine, subtidal UB2
Marine, subtidal UB1
Marine, subtidal RF3
Marine, subtidal RF1
Marine, subtidal RB2
Marine, subtidal RB1
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
Marine, subtidal AB1

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) are generally restricted
to coastal waters, seldom occuring outside the continental shelf or
more than a few kilometers inland (82). Basic habitat needs include:
disturbance and predator free nesting areas near reliable food
resources, waters with fish stocks adequate to support non-breeding
and wintering populations, and appropriate roosting sites during all
times of the year (128).
Breeding habitat varies considerably throughout the species
range. The need for isolation from mammalian predators and human
disturbance necessitates the use of islands, but beyond this, pelicans
are relatively flexible in the type of substrate used for nesting.
Colony sites range from nearly barren offshore islands of Peru (128),
to estuarine mangrove islands in Florida (108), Louisiana (38), and
the southwestern coast of Mexico (128). Breeding also takes place on
low-lying, sparsely vegetated sand or spoil islands in the Carolinas,
brushy coastal islands in Texas (127), shrubby offshore islands in
California, rocky, desert island mountains in the Gulf of California
(128), and on the slopes of richly forested islands in Panama and
parts of Mexico (07,81). Nests may be constructed on the ground, in
shrubs, or in trees; sometimes all three types of nest can be found
in one colony. Sandbars, offshore rocks and islets, or other suitable
loafing areas are usually prominent in the vicinity of nesting
colonies (116,128).
Most eastern brown pelican colonies in the U.S. are located
landward of barrier islands or in estuarine situations, are less than
2 ha in size (129), and range from less than 1 to 6 m above mean high
tide level (91). An important parameter for ground nesters is
sufficient elevation to reduce widescale nest flooding (38). Most
successful nesting at Duveaux Bank, SC, took place at 2 m elevation,
Habitat Associations - 6 on a sand dune where flooding does not occur (26). Establishment of
colonies on spoil islands has been increasing in recent years (87,91).
Nests at many of the larger, long-term successful mangrove colonies
in Florida, are situated around the periphery of protected lagoons
(84).
The rocky offshore islands typical of California brown pelican
colonies range from 7 to 40 km seaward from the mainland, and island
size varies from 0.4 to 895 square km (09). Nesting commonly occurs
as high as 270 m in elevation on the faces of desert island mountains
in the Gulf of California, Mexico, and western Baja California,
however, nests are also constructed along shore, 4 to 5 m above sea
level and at various heights in between (06).
The quality and productivity of ocean waters associated with
colony sites are essential to nesting success (13,15,81). Brown
pelicans breeding at the Channel Islands, CA, generally depend on
food resources within 20 to 30 km of colonies while incubating eggs
and feeding young (15,33). Breeding birds in the Gulf of California
may range over 70 km from some colonies to "regular" feeding areas
(06). Long-term, successful colonies probably reflect the presence of
food resources that are dependable and abundant during the breeding
season (79). Oceanic environments associated with colonies in the
Southern California Bight, Peru, and the Gulf of Panama are
characterized by seasonal, wind driven upwelling, providing for
extermely productive periods during the breeding season (33,79,81).
Nesting colonies in the Southern California Bight, and the bulk of
guano bird colonies in Peru, are situated near the centers of the
anchovy stocks upon which they depend (34,66). In view of the
tendency for such forage bases to expand and contract, a central
location is probably an essential factor in stability of these
colonies (79). Pelicans have greater flexibility in habitat use
during the non-breeding period and can disperse great distances along
the coast in search of suitable foraging conditions (10).
Feeding habitats utilized by brown pelicans include estuarine,
inshore, nearshore, and offshore neritic environments (12,108). Water
turbidity, depth, and temperature all influence biological
productivity and food availability to seabirds (03). Brown pelicans
primarily feed by visual detection and plunge-diving (22), therefore
clear water is an advantage and turbid water is generally avoided (03,
82). An affinity for relatively shallow waters is evident. All
sightings of pelicans during aerial inventories in the northern Gulf
of Mexico and Atlantic coast of Florida, were within the 25 m isobath
(49); in California, pelicans generally occur in waters less than
150 m in depth (34). Pelicans in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands reportedly feed opportunistically in coastal waters regardless
of calmness or depth (140), however, most feeding areas described
averaged less than 18 m in depth.
Pelicans are associated with a broad range of water temperatures.
In the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic waters they occur over sea surface
temperatures ranging from 19 to 29 degrees C (49). In California,
they are most abundant in waters between 13 and 20 degrees C (34);
which corresponds to the temperature preference of northern anchovies
(25). Pelicans occur in California, Oregon, and Washington, in
greatest abundance when average sea surface temperatures are highest
(10). They tend to forage in association with moderate or strong
thermal gradients bordering cool upwellings (34), but are probably not
abundant in the turbid centers of intense upwellings (35). Anomalous
warm water periods off the Pacific coast can have a dramatic impact on
habitat use when anchovies respond by moving far offshore or deep in
the water column, becoming inaccessible to surface feeding seabirds
(02,46,79). Sudden drops in water temperature characteristic of the
Gulf of Mexico in winter may cause a similar response in menhaden
Habitat Associations - 7 and other prey species (50,84).
Schreiber (108) observed most brown pelicans in Florida feeding
in estuarine situations (108). Results of recent aerial surveys
agree with a very nearshore distribution on the east coast of Florida,
but over the wide shallow shelf waters of the gulf, the average
distance from shore in spring was about 40 km and single birds ranged
out as far as 99 km (49).
There is a striking difference in the extent of offshore foraging
that occurs in the Southern California Bight as compared to the South
Atlantic Bight. Extensive ocean surveys of Atlantic waters off North
Carolina and Georgia reinforce the perception that pelicans in this
area rarely occur beyond sight of land (57,77). In North Carolina,
pelicans are primarily found in saltwater bays behind barrier islands
and are most abundant near inlets (77). Georgia pelicans are
primarily restricted to bays and rivers, rarely traveling more than
2 to 3 km up wide river mouths and only occasionaly feeding as far as
5 to 8 km offshore (57). Although mid-shelf fronts occur at depths of
20 to 40 m (58) and menhaden and other surface schooling fish occur in
abundance (77), pelicans apparently do not significantly exploit
offshore resources in the South Atlantic Bight. In the South Atlantic
Bight, pelicans inhabit a broad section of coastal waters (33).
Greatest densities occur within 30 km of mainland or island shores,
however, feeding aggregates regularly occur along the continental
slope as far as 175 km off the mainland (Cortez Banks) and 75 km
seaward of the nearest island (33).
Foraging activity is especially heavy in the Santa Barbara
Channel (33,53). The breadth of waters inhabited in the South
California Bight probably reflects the presence of numerous offshore
islands available for roosting and subsea banks and ridges which
enhance local upwelling (33). In central and northern California
where the continental shelf is relatively narrow, most pelicans are
encountered within 16 km of the mainland and few are seen more than
50km out to sea (34). Geographic variation in extent of offshore
foraging is probably related to differences in life histories of
primary prey species as well as availability of open-ocean roosting
sites.
Seasonal habitat use by both resident and migrant California
brown pelicans is strongly influenced by changes in the California
Current system (10). No similar correlations to large-scale
oceanographic events are known for brown pelicans in the southeast
U.S. (57).
Roosting and loafing habitats used by aggregations of pelicans
include offshore rocks, islands, beaches, river mouths, estuaries,
salt flats, sand bars, lagoons, mangroves, jetties, marinas, piers,
shipwrecks, boats, etc. Often these include urban areas. The
presence of a water barrier between pelicans and human activity
appears to be very important. Areas secured from human traffic such
as restricted portions of navy bases, fenced or patrolled private
property, or inaccessible beaches allow pelicans to use habitats such
as mainland beaches and cliffs without presence of a water barrier.
Pelicans quickly recognize a "safe area" and will use it frequently.
The relative importance of individual roost sites varies seasonally
and among years (01,33,34), however, certain traditional,
low-disturbance, nocturnal roosts are used by thousands of pelicans
annually. Communal roosts in California can be occupied by as many as
5,000 brown pelicans at one time (01,33), whereas aggregations of
pelicans in the southeast U.S. occur on a much smaller scale.
Non-breeding pelicans may move between coastal roosts in response to
changing feeding conditions (23,34) or human disturbances (116).
Significant differences in age composition of roosting aggregates
between habitats and across seasons have been observed (23,34,41,116,
Habitat Associations - 8 117). Briggs et al. (34) found a high ratio of adults to immatures
(2.4:1) on roosts during daylight surveys in north and central
California, while in southern California immatures outnumbered adults
(8:1) along the mainland (beaches, jetties, piers) and adults
predominated (4:1) in groups loafing on offshore islands. Adults
comprised 90 percent of the pelican population in Tampa Bay (the
vicinity of a large breeding colony studied by Schreiber) during the
breeding season (117). Numbers of subadults and immatures increased
dramatically in the area in the post-breeding and wintering periods.
Schreiber (116) also noted that on the gulf coast of Florida, marinas
and fishing piers (including urban areas) are used more heavily in
winter and spring by young-of-the-year and subadults rather than
adults (116).
Disturbances to habitats used for nesting, feeding, and roosting
can negatively impact brown pelicans in a variety of ways. Pelicans
may occur at any urban areas along the coast throughout their range
where there is food nearby and they are not continuously harassed.
Breeding colonies are especially vulnerable to human disturbance
(20,109).
Nesting substrate free from terrestrial predators and near
accessible food supplies throughout the breeding season are the major
determinants for successful reproduction (09,128). Nesting takes
place exclusively on islands in salt water environments. Nests may be
constructed on the ground or in a variety of trees and shrubs with
open branching. When present, tree or bush sites are generally
selected over ground nesting (06,84). Nests are constructed from
available vegetation or debris ranging from scrapes in the ground to
elevated, mound-like structures built of sticks, grasses, leaves,
soil, etc. (93).
Breeding colonies of the eastern brown pelican are generally
located on small coastal islands near shore or in estuaries (129). In
Florida and Louisiana breeding colonies occur mostly in red and black
mangroves (Avicienna nitida, Rhizopora mangle) (85,135). Nests are
generally 2-10 feet above high tide level (up to 25 ft.), have a
foundation of sticks, and are lined with twigs, leaves, grasses, and
feathers (114,136). Colonies in Texas typically occur on vegetated
islands where Spartina sp. and Borrichia sp. dominate; nests are
constructed both on the ground and in shrubs (127).
Rocky offshore islands are the primary nesting sites of
California brown pelicans (128). Cover varies from relatively dense
shrubs and annuals, where stick nests lined with grasses and forbes
are built on the ground or brush (Coreopsis maritima) is often used as
a nest foundation on W. Anacapa Island, CA), to more xeric islands
where ground nests are no less bulky (Mexico) (06,128). Cacti and
woody shrubs comprise the primary vegetation at colonies in the Gulf
of California. Here pelicans build stick nests of Atriplex,
Salicornia, seaweeds, and annuals, on the ground in arroyos, along
rocky ridges, in flat areas, or in Salicornia bushes (06). Young
pelicans often tear up the nests before they fledge (06,51). Sandbars
and offshore rocks near colony sites are important habitat components
for resting parents and congregations of newly fledged young (110,
128).

Habitat Associations - 9 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Crustaceans
General Aves
General Carrion
General Fish
General Crustaceans
General Aves
General Carrion
General Fish
General Crustaceans
General Aves
General Carrion
General Fish

Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G
G
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G
G
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G
G

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

LIFE HISTORY

FOOD HABITS:
Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) feed almost exclusively
on marine fish within one meter of the water's surface (121) by visual
detection and plunge-diving (119) or by scoop-feeding while swimming
(43). Some populations are essentially restricted to a single-species
diet (15,46) while others feed opportunistically on a diverse prey
base (09,48). Food selection depends on availability and
accessibility from the water's surface. Observed age-related
differences in foraging efficiency (32,90), may indicate lower success
rates for juveniles under some conditions.
Many food habit studies from 1919 thru 1949 indicated that
menhaden (Brevoortia sp.) comprised 90 to 95% of the diet throughout
the southeastern U.S. (93). A 1970 to 1972 Atlantic and Gulf coast
Florida study identified 31 species of fish in regurgitated boluses of
nestlings and revealed that menhaden accounted for a relatively low
proportion of the diet (21% in frequency in 1972 and 14% by weight)
(48). Menhaden sp., Atlantic threadfin (Polydactylus octonemus),
mullet (Mugil sp.), and pinfish (Lagodon rhomboidies) together
comprised over 60% of the total. Other important species included
spot (Leistomas xanthuras), sea trout (Cyanscion sp.), Atlantic
croaker (Micropogan undulatus) and bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli).
Limited data indicate a shift between 1950 and 1970 in food habits of
brown pelicans nesting in Florida from menhaden to a more diverse
diet.
Brown pelicans in South Carolina feed almost exclusively on
young-of-the-year menhaden, which hatch off the coast and migrate into
estuaries (26). Similarly, Gulf menhaden (B. patronus) is thought to
be the key forage fish of pelicans in Louisiana (28). Current
quantitative information on eastern brown pelican diets is lacking.
Extensive investigations have concluded that pelicans eat fish species
generally not consumed by man (74,93). Additional forage species
include: sheepshead (Archosargus sp.), silverside (Menidia sp.),
crevole (Paratractus sp.), top minnow (Gambusia sp.), pigfish
(Orthopriesties sp.), and prawns. Young are generally fed on fish 4
to 12 inches in length (74).
Historical food habit data are lacking for the Calif. brown
pelican. Northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) is the main and
preferred breeding season forage species in California and northwest
Baja California waters as indicated by examination of nesting
regurgitations between 1972-1985 (13,128). Anchovies comprised 92
pct. of regurgitations collected from 1972 to 1979 with Pacific saury
(Cololabis saira), rockfish (Sebastes sp.) and Pacific mackerel
(Scomber japonicus) together with northern anchovy equalling 99% of
the diet. Topsmelt (Atherinops affinis), white croaker (Genyonemus
lineatus), surfperches (Embiotocidae) and blacksmith (Chromis
punctupinnus) amounted to less than 1%. Characteristic prey is
generally small (less than 300 mm), fairly dense schooling fish,
frequently occurring near the waters surface (53). Anchovies are
generally of the 1 to 2 year cohort (90 to 140 mm); newly spawned
anchovies are scant in breeding season samples collected (124).
Pelican nesting phenology and reproductive success in Calif. are
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

highly dependent on abundance and distribution of anchovies in the S.
Calif. Bight (15).
The Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax), formerly abundant on the
Calif. coast, may have been an important forage item for many species
of breeding seabirds (04,128). As sardine populations declined in the
late 1940's and early 1950's, anchovy populations increased, replacing
them as the predominant surface schooling fish (25).
Although some species predominate annually or seasonally, no
single species dominates the Calif. brown pelican diet in the Gulf of
Calif., Mex., (09). More than 40 species of prey (primarily
engraulid, clupeid, and scombrid fishes and including invertebrates)
have been found in chick regurgitations. Major influxes of Mexican
birds into Calif. coastal waters usually occur when anchovies become
large enough to be suitable forage items (July-October) (10,34). The
exploitation of anchovies during the post-breeding period is not
documented, however, anchovies are extremely important in the diets of
other coastal seabirds in Calif. and Oregon during the fall (02,133).
Peruvian brown pelicans rely strictly on anchoveta (E. ringens).
The unregulated fishery on anchoveta has had a dramatic impact on
guano bird populations (46,64). Pelican regurgitations examined in
Belize (32) contained only 2 species of herring (Atherinomorous sp.).
The diet of pelicans in Puerto Rico consists primarily of blue fry
(Jenkinsia lamprotaenia), sharkmouth fry (Anchoa lyolepis), sprat
(Harengula spp.), whalebone anchovy (Ctenengraulis edentulus), and
Tilapia mossambica (140).
Pelicans sometimes scavenge, eating almost any kind of animal
matter including the bodies of birds and flesh of porpoises discarded
during preparation of museum specimens near the Galapagos Is. (120),
and fish carcasses resulting from severe winter storms in Oregon (56).
Brown pelicans have been observed feeding on stranded carp and suckers
near Yakima, WA, surfish (Amphistichus) in an Oregon stream, and
carrion (93). Occassional cannibalism of young also occurs (82,93).
During extreme El Nino's in Peru when anchovies become unavailable
(46), starving pelicans have wandered into cities in search of food
(76); some especially young birds, becoming "pier bums" around fishing
boats, bait shops, fishing piers, etc., stealing or soliciting food
items and receiving "handouts" from fisherman and tourists (06,78,
128).

HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Brown pelicans are gregarious during all seasons (82); they
typically breed, feed, roost, loaf, and bathe communally (93). Colony
nest territories presumably includes the bird's bill distance while
sitting or standing on the nest (107), although nests may be as dense
as 3/sq. m (45). Soliciting males aggressively defend newly claimed
nest sites against other prospecting males (107). Once a pair is
established, both members defend the site. In mangrove colonies, each
nest has one or two perches used by both sexes for landing, take-off,
feeding young, and by the "out" bird for resting, preening, and
sleeping (107). Defensive behavior includes mandible lunging and
snapping, or threatening by raising, opening, and subsequently waiving
wide-open bills at passing conspecifics, cormorants, or potential
predators (107,131). Physical contact is not often observed, but,
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

Keith (67) reports vicious and bloody confrontations in the Gulf of
Calif. Observations of roosting birds indicate some sort of space
defense and possible social heirarchy regarding territorial behavior
away from the nest site (06,131). Home ranges during the breeding
season vary with food proximity and availability (53). Gress et al.
(53) found most pelicans feeding within a 20 km radius of a Calif.
colony. Information on migratory/wintering home ranges is lacking.
Home range probably varies according to environmental conditions and
individual birds. Croll (40) observed a non-breeding
radio-telemetered pelican travel about 54 km one day (roost-forage
area-roost) moving very little the next day.

PERIODICITY:
Brown pelicans are primarily diurnal, foraging and loafing by day
(or attending nests); gathering into communal roosts at dusk (32,33,
82); and sometimes flying and feeding at night (33,107). In Peru,
pelicans are described as "at least partly nocturnal" (44). Three
periods of foraging (beginning at dawn, late morning, and late
afternoon) proceeding three heaviest periods of chick feeding
(0700-0800, 1100-1200, and about 2 hours before sunset) have been
observed during the breeding season. No distinct cycle of activity
was found other than an increase in nest building towards evening in a
Fla. colony (107). Non-breeding pelican numbers (large mainland
night roost in Calif.) were highest at dawn and dusk, and lowest at
mid-day; corresponding boat surveys revealed peak numbers at sea
around 1230 (34). A radio-telemetered sub-adult Calif. brown pelican
was observed in fall showing a clear diurnal pattern (40) but was
active only 19% (22.7 hrs.) of the 4-day study period, the remainder
was spent loafing or on night roosts. Time spent in daytime loafing
may vary geographically and with habitat (34). The greater number of
pelicans on roosts during the day in northern Calif. vs. southern
Calif. might reflect higher adult age ratios (i.e., greater foraging
efficiency), food supply proximity, or limited foraging time due to
high winds and turbulence (34).

MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Brown pelicans are migratory seabirds rarely straying far from
the coastline either seaward or inland (12,82). Movements of 800 to
1500 km from breeding colonies are common; some individuals wander
much further (10,31,106). Pelicans may remain in a given area during
favorable conditions with considerable movement probably
characteristic during the non-breeding period. Post-breeding
dispersal patterns of Calif. brown pelicans are largely influenced by
seasonal changes in the Calif. Current system (10). A major influx of
pelicans occurs into the waters of the Calif. Current in mid-late
summer, before completion of the breeding season in the S. Calif.
Bight (33,128). Most of these migrants originate from colonies in the
Gulf of Calif. (13) and may exhibit an overland migration across the
Baja Peninsula (06). Following breeding, pelicans from the S. Calif.
Bight colonies also disperse north along the Calif. coast, and in
lesser numbers into Oregon and Washington (10,34). Southward
post-breeding movements along Baja, Calif. and the Mexican Pacific
coast also occur in both of these populations (31,128). At the onset
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

of winter storms, flocks of brown pelicans will move south out of
northern Pacific areas (06,56). Return migration of Gulf-originating
birds occurs mostly in late Oct.-Nov.; observations suggest a near
coast (within 10 km of shore) migration route in northern Calif. (34).
Residents of the S. Calif. Bight return to the vicinity of their
nesting colonies by Jan. or Dec. (10). Certain offshore regions and
communal roosts along the Calif. coast traditionally receive heavy use
during the migratory period, especially areas near mouths of rivers
and major harbors (06,34). Annual and seasonal variation in wintering
concentrations are expected to correspond to variable distribution of
food resources. Juveniles from S. Carolina colonies begin to arrive
in Fla. one month after fledging (Aug.) (105) and are relatively
evenly distributed along the Fla. Atlantic coast and the Fla. Keys
from Dec.-Feb.; movement into Cuba and the Bahamas also occurs (106).
Pelicans from Gulf of Mexico colonies may disperse short distances; a
large proportion migrate to Columbia, Venezuala, and the Greater
Antilles (93). Mid-summer influxes of pelicans into the Laguna-Madre
region of Texas are apparently from Mexican Atlantic coast colonies
(70).

COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Protection from heavy wind and waves are probably factors
involved in nest site selection and micro-habitat use on communal
roosts (06). Chicks at breeding colonies sometimes use vegetative
cover for protection from solar radiation and extreme temperatures
(06). Avoidance of mammalian predation at nesting colonies involves
isolation primarily via water barriers as opposed to concealment.
Pelicans roosting on mainland sites (such as beaches or esturaries)
generally occupy very flat areas, enhancing predator detection (33).
Colonial nesting, including roosting with other species (i.e., gulls)
assists in detecting potential predators or disturbance.

REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Nesting substrate free from terrestrial predators and accessible
food supplies throughout the breeding season are major determinants
for successful reproduction (09,128). Nesting is exclusively on
islands in salt water environments. Nests may be constructed on the
ground or in a variety of trees and shrubs with open branching. When
present, tree or bush sites are generally selected over ground nesting
(06,84). Nests are constructed from available vegetation or debris
ranging from scrapes in the ground to elevated, mound-like structures
built of sticks, grasses, leaves, soil, etc. (93).
Breeding colonies of E. brown pelicans are generally located on
small coastal islands near shore or in estuaries (129). In Fla. and
La. breeding colonies occur mostly in red and black mangroves
(Avicienna nitida, Rhizopora mangle) (85,135). Nests are generally
2-10 feet above high tide level (up to 25 ft.), have a foundation of
sticks, and are lined with twigs, leaves, grasses, and feathers (114,
136). Colonies in Texas typically occur on vegetated islands where
Spartina sp. and Borrichia sp. dominate; nests are constructed both
on the ground and in shrubs (127).
Rocky offshore islands are primary nesting sites of Calif. brown
pelicans (128). Cover varies from relatively dense shrubs and
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

annuals, where stick nests lined with grasses and forbes are built on
the ground, or brush (Coreopsis maritima) is often used as a nest
foundation (on W. Anacapa Island, CA), to more xeric islands where
ground nests are no less bulky (Mex.) (06,128). Cacti and woody
shrubs comprise the primary vegetation at colonies in the Gulf of
Calif., where pelicans build stick nests of Atriplex, Salicornia,
seaweeds, and annuals, on the ground in arroyos, along rocky ridges,
in flat areas, or in Salicornia bushes (06). Young pelicans often
tear up the nests before they fledge (06,51). Sandbars and offshore
rocks near colony sites are important for resting parents and
congregations of newly fledged young (110,128).

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Brown pelicans arrive at nesting colonies in flocks, apparently
unmated (82,93). The adult male selects and occupies a potential
nest site and performs a head-swaying display, conspicuously exposing
the gular pouch, in attempts to attract females (107). Males may
display from less than one day to 3 weeks prior to accepting a mate
(67,93,107). Nesting usually occurs at the display site, however,
some newly formed pairs wander through the colony together seeking a
different nesting location (67). Observations of Peruvian pelicans
indicate that groups of mated pairs arrive at the colony overnight
(45). There is no evidence of pair bonds persisting past a single
breeding season in the wild. Nest building is an important part of
early courtship (107). Nesting material is gathered by the male who
usually circles over the colony, returning to present it to the female
who then incorporates it into the nest. Copulation occurs only on the
nest site and is performed throughout the nest building period, but
rarely after the first egg is laid. Average clutch size is 3 eggs
(17). Incubation begins with laying of the first egg, is shared by
both parents, and lasts 29-30 days (17,93). Hatching is asynchronous.
Age at first nesting is generally 3-5 years; females breeding slightly
earlier than males (06). Fledging of young by two year old birds has
not been documented (29,51). Reproduction probably continues well
over 20 years of age.
Brown pelicans have variable reproductive seasons, and are
flexibile regarding local food availability and air/water temperature
(15,22,83,111). Nesting is often asynchronous at large colonies,
generally occurring in "waves" (45,82,111). Pelicans tend to form
many separate subgroups of nests rather than nesting uniformly in a
colony (06,82); breeding stage of the cores of subgroups in colonies
tends to be similar (06,82,111). Between latitudes 30 and 35 deg. N
the reproductive season of the E. brown pelican is fairly definite
with most egg laying from late Mar.-May (111). Nesting between lat.
20 and 30 deg. N is on a winter-spring cycle, beginning in Dec.-Jan.
with only some irregularity. Nesting between lat. 10 and 20 deg. N is
irregular, over prolonged periods, usually beginning in Nov.- Dec. and
lasting through June (sometimes throughout the year) (111).
The breeding season for in the S. Calif. Bight fluctuates
annually, beginning as early as Dec.; fledging extending into Oct.
(13,51). Normally eggs are laid from late Feb. through April (Anacapa
Is.) and most young have fledged by late July (13). Pelicans at some
Gulf of Calif. colonies may breed slightly earlier, rarely year-round
Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

(06). At the Galapagos Is., egg laying may occur throughout the year
(141). Renesting after loss of a clutch can occur but is uncommon
(06,109). Reproductive cycle requires at least 4.5 to 5 months (13,
111). An endogenous breeding-molting rythym of less than a year is
suggested (111). Colony size ranges from 2 to 17,000 pairs (San
Lorenzo Is., Mex.) (06) with average colony size probably dependent on
regional fish stocks, habitat availability, and tradition.

PARENTAL CARE:
Brown pelicans are altricial and semi-nidicolous (93); down
appears at 7-10 days with a full white down coat present by 2-3 weeks
(105). One or both parents brood nestlings for 3-4 weeks while young
develop thermo-regulatory ability and grow less vulnerable to avian
predation (24,105). Both parents share in feeding chicks. During the
first week to 10 days, adults regurgitate partially digested food onto
the floor of the nest or into pouches of young (105). Nestlings begin
aggressive begging at 10 days, and reach inside the adult's gular
pouch to receive food. Parents generally guard nests for 4-6 weeks,
and do not spend the night on the nest after young are 5-6 weeks of
age (105,107). After 5 weeks, chicks begin to wander within a limited
area of ground nests, gathering into groups or pods (131); at arboreal
sites, this may correspond with chick movement onto branches near the
nest. Pre-fledglings generally return to the vicinity of the nest
site to be fed (06,107). The age of first flight and fledging varies
within the same subspecies from first flights observed in Florida at
10-12 weeks (with young not returning to the nest and not being fed
again by parents) (107); to first flight in Panama of 35 days average,
with no extended feeding by parents observed (81). Fledging of Calif.
brown pelicans ranges from 11-13 weeks (13,68); some return to nest
sites and are seen begging from adults, while others depart with
migrating groups (06). It is characteristic for newly fledged birds
to congregate in large groups in the vicinity of the colony to loaf
and practice feeding etc. (84,116,128); but, within a few days they
are apparently foraging with adults (06).

POPULATION BIOLOGY:
During the "DDT era," impacts of high levels of DDE residues
literally masked the effects of all other factors limiting brown
pelican populations (128). Continuous long term research efforts
indicate that food availability has become the most important
influence on pelican productivity in the S. Calif. Bight (128); and
similarly with northern populations of Eastern brown pelicans (26).
Cyclic population crashes of Peruvian brown pelicans are related to
periodic years of food shortages resulting in reduced or complete
breeding failure and reflect massive adult mortalities during intense
El Nino events (46). Unused nesting substrate appears available in
California, but ties to traditional areas and habitat features might
restrict breeding distribution (06). Availability of undisturbed
nesting sites may limit population growth in parts of Mexico.
Interactions among established breeders and sub-adult pelicans may
inhibit nesting of younger age groups (116). Social factors impacting
on population regulation are suggested by nesting attempts by
unusually young (1 and 2 year old) pelicans translocated to Louisiana
Life History - 6 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

into areas devoid of adults, and infiltration and "practice nesting"
behavior of subadults on Anacapa Is. following adult nesting failure
and abandonment of the colony in 1971 (13).
The recruitment standard estimated by Henny (58) indicates an
average of 1.2-1.5 young must be produced per breeding female to
maintain stable populations. Both Anderson and Schreiber (13) have
noted maximum productivity rates of 1.3 to 1.7 young fledged per nest
and long term means of productivity of 1.0 (13). Fluctuating
productivity appears to be characteristic (10,109,111,128), thus long
term averages are important. Actual mortality rates of pelicans are
unknown but may be more stable than natality rates (13). Anderson
(13) estimated a 15% annual mortality rate, with 50%, 25%, 15%, and
12-15% in years 1, 2, 3, and 4+ respectively. Henny (58) and
Schreiber (108) estimated a 70-75% mortality rate in year 1. Heaviest
death rates likely occur in the first few months post-fledging. The
life-table of Peruvian pelicans probably differs considerably (46).
Brown pelicans exhibit delayed maturity (93) and are long-lived
(up to 25-30 years in the wild) (110). Pelicans are a fairly
resilint species (14,110), responding to reduced populations
primarily through increased reproduction rates (13). Emigration of
pelicans from Mexico has probably bolstered breeding populations in
Calif. (13) and perhaps Texas (70). Translocating young from Fla. to
La. was eventually successful in reestablishment of populations there
(80). Colony shifting and interchange of birds between colonies is
not unusual (13,136). Numbers of brown pelicans in the S. Calif.
Bight area increased to approximatley 6,000 pairs in 1985 (36).
Breeding populations in the Gulf of California have exhibited
considerable annual variation from 1970 to 1984 but over the long-term
have been stable (06).

SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Brown pelicans in the S. Calif. Bight and Peru are highly
dependent on anchovies during the breeding season (13,64), and are
affected by the dramatic population fluctuations of this prey species
(13,15,64,79). Northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) abundance from
1972-1979 correlated to number of nesting attempts, nesting phenology,
and fledging success of pelicans on Anacapa Is. and in NW Baja Calif.
(13). Natural warm water conditions ("El Nino's") occurring
periodically in the Humboldt and Calif. Current systems (79) serve as
an extreme example. Intense El Nino's with associated lack of
upwelling and nutrients, may decrease fish availability such that
pelicans and other seabirds in Peru (46), the Galapagos Is. (139), the
Gulf of Calif. (07), western Baja Calif., and more rarely, in Calif.
(36,51) do not attempt to breed, or abandon eggs or chicks to disperse
in search of food (07,46,39). Unusually early movements of Mexican
seabirds to the Calif. coast are often related to such breeding
failures in the Gulf of Calif. (10) and increases in the intensity and
extent of dispersal into Calif. and north along the Pacific coast are
associated with these anamolous warm water conditions as occurred in
1983. Baldridge (23) suggested historical sporadic breeding north of
the S. Calif. Bight near Monterey, may have been associated with warm
water periods. Red tides are also likely to impact brown pelicans,
but little has been published on this topic.
Life History - 7 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

Avian predators, particularly gulls, often nest in association
with brown pelicans and are natural components of breeding colonies
(09). Significant predation of eggs and nestlings probably only
occurs when pelicans are flushed from their nests by disturbances such
as human intrusion (09,114). Instances of ravens (Corvus corax) and
western gulls (Larus occidentalis) stealing eggs directly from under
birds in the Gulf of Calif. (114) are reported by Keith (68).
Several parasites of brown pelicans have been described (63,69,
74), with ticks probably exerting the most direct impact. A heavy
infestation of ticks (Ornithodorous capiens) likely caused group nest
desertion in Texas in 1975 and subsequent abandonment of the colony
site (69). Infestations of related species (O. denmarki) may be an
important variable influencing distribution and nest success in the
Gulf of Calif. (67,71). The Peruvian pelican has been reported to
desert eggs and young in response to high densities of argasid ticks
(O. amblus) (47). Duffy (47) suggests that ticks are an important
cause of nesting failure among densely nesting Peruvian guano birds.
Kleptoparasitism of feeding brown pelicans by laughing gulls
(Larus atricilla) and Heermann's gulls (L. heermanni) is well known
(09,37,82,103). Conversely, gulls may benefit pelicans by attracting
them to rich food patches (09,53). Feeding associations often include
diving birds (cormorants and boobies) which drive fish to the surface,
likely increasing prey availability (06,49,75).

OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.

Life History - 8 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying pesticides
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) was listed as
endangered throughout its range in 1970 in response to widespread,
rapid population declines which occurred in the U.S., and the
uncertain status of the species in other countries (130). Problems in
California became apparent in 1968 and 1969, when massive eggshell
breakage and total colony abandonment was observed at West Anacapa
Island, the only known breeding location in the state at the time
(113). From aproximately 1300 nests on Anacapa in 1969 only four
young fledged (99). Eggs contained high levels of DDE, which causes
shell thinning and often the collapse of eggs during incubation
(61,68). Eggshell thinning at Anacapa was evident at least as early
as 1962 (17) and very low productivity due to hatching failure
occurred through about 1973 (13). Levels of DDT compounds in the
southern California marine environment were among the highest recorded
for any coastal ecosystems worldwide (128). Although concentrations
of DDT decreased south of Los Angeles (102), eggshell thinning also
contributed to substantial nesting failure of brown pelicans in
northwest Baja California in the late 1960's (65). Food shortages,
physiological stresses, and DDE residues concentrated in the food web
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

probably act synergistically to adversely efffect avian reproduction
(67,125).
Organochlorine contaminants have been implicated as the primary
cause of population crashes in the eastern brown pelican (26,129),
however, other factors may have interacted to cause declines in Texas
and Louisiana (70,88). Development of the coastal regions of North
America, for a variety of purposes, produced a demand for the use
of organochlorine compounds and the resulting chemical by-products
accumulated in the environment. Decreased reproduction in South
Carolina in the early 1970's was attributed to eggshell thinning by
DDE, but findings were complicated by the presence of dieldrin and
several other organochlorine contaminants in eggs (26). Evidence
strongly suggests that the extirpation of the brown pelican in
Louisiana by 1962 was primarily due to high levels of endrin in the
northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries (28,129). Endrin was later found to
cause lethal toxicosis in pelicans and their prey (122,137).
Populations declined sharply in the 1920's in Texas and the 1950's
in Louisiana. However, this was before the introduction of endrin
(70,88). These earlier declines were attributed to human persecution
(harassment/vandalism/indiscriminate killing), increases in coastal
development and disturbance at breeding colonies (i.e., more people
and boats leading to more intrusion into colonies causing lowered
reproductive success or colony abandonment), disease, and several
winters of sudden, severe drops in temperatures (adverse weather)
(88,136). Florida pelican eggs contained low contaminant residues
(30,125); populations there remained stable while others declined
(115).
Use of DDT in the U.S. was banned in 1972 and use of endrin
declined sharply in 1976 (30). Affected populations of brown pelicans
have shown a resurgence in productivity and an increase in numbers
since the passage and implementation of strict legislation regarding
these chemicals (18,26,128). Although residues of DDE and many other
organochlorine contaminants linger in the marine environment (12,138),
their immediate acute threat to the species appears to have subsided.
While most nesting colonies in the U.S. are protected in some
way, other essential habitat components are under increasing pressure
(12,110). The potential for commercial fisheries/seabird conflicts
exists in U.S. and Mexican waters, especially where pelicans are
subject to natural reductions of a limited prey base (12,79).
Overfishing of anchovies coupled with El Nino conditions have resulted
in poor recruitment of brown pelicans in Peru (46). The effects of El
Nino severely depressed productivity of brown pelicans in California
in 1983 through reductions in food availability. Negative encounters
between sportsfisherman and pelicans could also become an increasing
problem (128,136). Harassment often is a result of recreation (i.e.,
tourism, hunting, boating, fishing, etc.) and pelicans often get
hooked by lures, etc. and tangled up in fishing line. About 5 percent
of Florida's pelicans die each year as a result of entanglement in
monofilament line (105). Increases in offshore oil development and
oil importation are a concern as brown pelicans are vulnerable to oil
spills (38,49,73). Introduction of new pesticides and other toxic
chemicals into the marine environment will always be a potential
threat to a species which has demonstrated such extreme sensitivity
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

to pollutants. Human disturbance threatens some seabird colonies in
Mexico (20,21). Western Mexico and Panama contain by far the largest
breeding populations of California and eastern brown pelicans (81,128,
130), therefore, careful attention should be given to status and
conservation problems of the species in Latin America.
Repeated intrusions can decrease nesting success or cause
complete abandonment of colony sites. Anderson and Keith (20) found
that one disturbance early in the nesting season can decrease
productivity of a colony 52 to 100 percent. Some brown pelicans seem
to readily habituate to certain human activities. Many large,
successful Florida nesting colonies are close to centers of human
activity (136) and begging pelicans can be a nuisance at fishing
piers. However, even these birds cannot tolerate the presence of
people within a certain distance of their nests. Rapid flushing from
nests may damage eggs, knock out young chicks, or result in loss of
nest contents to avian predators (109,128). Nesting can suffer from
exposure within minutes of a brooding parent's absence (24).
Protection of breeding sites will be useless unless quality
feeding and wintering habitat are maintained. There are numerous
potential threats to the integrity of marine environments (12,110).
Toxic chemicals and oil spills can have direct impacts on seabird
reproductive processes, food resources, thermoregulatory ability, and
other physiological functions (27,52,89). Forage reductions due to
commercial fishing of anchovies or menhaden, for example, in areas
where pelicans rely heavily on these single prey species, may have
more subtle, long term consequences, including reduced reproductive
effort, reproductive success, and tolerance of toxicants (16,58,125).
During periods of food stress, birds are also more likely to solicit
or steal fish from humans, thus increasing the odds of entaglement in
fishing gear or other negative encounters. Offshore sancturies such
as the Channel Islands National Park reduce disturbance potential to
pelicans and also indirectly protect food resources (12). Other
encouraging developments are the concept of maintaining a "forage
reserve" in commercial fisheries (currently under investigation for
northern anchovies) (16,92), and a proposed sardine sanctuary which
would protect an important spawning area in the Gulf of California
(54). Little is known about detrimental effects of direct and
indirect disturbances to roosting and loafing sites. Pelicans require
dry areas where they can rest, sleep, and perform maintenance
activities without excessive disturbance from human activities (116,
128) and establishment of new nesting sites often follows frequent
use of roosting sites (116,130). Management against environmental
degredation of foraging and roosting habitat is a more difficult
problem to address than protection of nesting substrate, but will be
necessary to insure the continued survival of the species (110,128).

APPROVED PLANS (3 Regional Plans):
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1979. Eastern Brown Pelican Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, GA. 46 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. California Brown Pelican
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 179 pp.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Brown Pelican Recovery Plan.
Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta,
GA. 27 pp.

The primary objective of the Eastern Brown Pelican Recovery Plan
is to prevent the extirpation of the the subspecies (P.o.
carolinensis) in any significant portion of its historic range.
This objective may be accomplished by:
1) Identifing historic range of all nesting sites, identify ownership,
and pursue dedication of sites through land acquisition, easements,
etc.;
2) establish colonies by developing stocking methods such as
transplanting individuals or eggs; and,
3) maintain natural and restocked colonies through natural
reproduction by identifying limiting factors, monitoring, and
initiating corrective measures. Limiting factors may include
pollutants, pesticides, human disturbance, etc.
The primary objective of the California Brown Pelican Recovery
Plan is to restore, self-sustaining populations of pelicans by: 1)
maintaining existing populations in Mexico; 2) assuring long-term
protection of adequate food supplies and essential nesting, roosting,
and off-shore habitat; and 3) restoring populations and productivity
to self-sustaining levels in the California Bight region for
downlisting or delisting the subspecies (P.o. californicus).
The density objective for the Southern California Bight
population, as stated in the Recovery Plan (128), will be satisfied
when any 5 year mean productivity reaches at least 0.9 young fledged
per nest-attempt from a population of at least 3,000 pairs.
This objective may be accomplished by:
1) protecting the pelican population and habitat in Mexico by
controlling coastal development, limiting human access, boating
disturbances, and air space usage;
2) maintaining a self-sustaining population in the Southern California
Bight and northwestern Baja California coastal areas through
controlling or restricting certain pollutants and pesticides;
3) protecting pelican food resources and feeding habitat through
controlling commercial and noncommercial harvests of anchovies and
other major food sources;
4) protecting major roosting areas by controlling coastal development,
limiting human access, boating disturbances, and air space usage;
5) delineating essential habitat;
6) monitoring pelican populations and assess management efforts;
7) conducting research on pelican feeding ecology and diet, anchovy
relationships, population estimates and distribution;
8) providing public information and conservation education in
bilingual media; and
9) enforcing laws and regulations.
The primary objective of the Brown Pelican Recovery Plan for
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands area is to achieve and
maintain a healthy population that would lead to delisting from the
Endangered Species List. This is defined as a running 5-year mean
population level of 2,300 individuals counted during January censuses
Management Practices - 5 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands under its
jurisdiction; and in the U.S. Virgin Islands, maintaining a 5-year
running average peak breeding population level of 350 for that region.
This objective may be accomplished by:
1) monitoring population numbers and reproductive performance;
2) monitoring harmful environmental conditions such as effects of
hurricanes, contaminants, and/or disease. Disease control
measures, although not specifically detailed in the Recovery Plan,
may be necessary as a secondary task as a result of harmful
environmental conditions.
3) protect and enhance the population by reducing human disturbance
at nesting sites including human access, boating, and/or air space
usage; and,
4) environmental public education through public talks or pamphlets
and posters.

Management Practices - 6 (DRAFT) - References
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

References

***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****

01 Ainley, D.G. 1972. Brown pelicans in north-central coastal
California. Calif. Birds 3:59-64.
02 Ainley, D.G. 1975. The occurrence of certain seabirds in the
nearshore California Current region of California. Western Birds.
03 Ainley, D.G. 1975. Feeding methods in marine birds: a comparison
of polar and tropical nesting communities. In: G.A. Llano (ed.).,
3rd symposium on Atlantic biology. Washington, D.C.
04 Ainley, D.G. and T.J. Lewis. 1974. The history of Farallon Island
marine bird populations, 1854-1972. Condor 76(4):432-446.
05 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Checklist of North American
birds, 6th ed. American Ornithologists' Union, Baltimore, MD.
06 Anderson, D.W. [n.d.] Field notes. Univ. of CA, Davis.
07 Anderson, D.W. 1973. Gulf of California seabird breeding failure.
Event Notif. Rep. 1653. Smithsonian Inst. Cent. for Short-lived
Phenomena.
08 Anderson, D.W. 1981. The biology and management of wild birds:
basic field and lab techniques. Div. of Wildl. and Fish. Biol.,
Univ. Book Store, Univ. of CA, Davis. 180 pp.
09 Anderson, D.W. 1983. The seabirds. In: T. Case and M.L. Cody
(eds.). Biogeography in the Sea of Cortez. Univ. of CA Press,
Berkeley.
10 Anderson, D.W. and I.T. Anderson. 1976. Distribution and status
of brown pelicans in the California Current. Amer. Birds 30:3-12.
11 Anderson, D.W., L.R. DeWeese, and D.V. Tiller. 1977. Passive
dispersal of California brown pelicans. Bird Banding 48:228-238.
12 Anderson, D.W. and F. Gress. 1981. The politics of pelicans. Pp.
117-143. In: The coast alliance (eds.). The coast in crisis:
scientists speak out. Friends of the Earth Press, San Francisco,
CA.
13 Anderson, D.W. and F. Gress. 1983. Status of a northern
population of California brown pelicans. Condor 85:79-88.
14 Anderson, D.W. and F. Gress. 1984. Brown pelicans and the
anchovy fishery off southern California. Pp. 128-135 In: D.N.
Nettleship, G.A. Sanger, and P.F. Springer (eds.). Proc. Pacific
Seabird Group Symp. Seattle, WA., 6-8 Jan. 1982. Canadian Wildl.
Serv. Spec. Publ.
15 Anderson, D.W., F. Gress, and K.L. Mais. 1982. Brown pelicans:
influence of food supply on reproduction. Oikos 39:2331.
16 Anderson, D.W., F. Gress, K.F. Mais, and P.R. Kelly. 1980. Brown
pelicans as anchovy stock indicators and their relationships to
commercial fishing. CALCOFI Rep., Vol XXI, 1980.
17 Anderson, D.W. and J.J. Hickey. 1970. Oological data on egg and
breeding characteristics of brown pelicans. Wilson Bull. 82:14-28.
18 Anderson, D.W., FJ.R. Jehl, Jr., R.W. Risebrough, L.A. Woods, Jr.,
L.R. DeWeese, and W.G. Edgecomb. 1975. Brown pelicans: improved
reproduction off the southern California coast. Science
190:806-808.
19 Anderson, D.W., R.M. Jurek, and J.O. Keith. 1977. The status of
brown pelicans at Anacapa Island California in 1975. CA Fish and
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

Game 63(1):4-19.
20 Anderson, D.W. and J.O. Keith. 1980. The human influence on
seabirds nesting success: conservation implications. Biol. Cons.
18:65-80.
21 Anderson, D.W., J.E. Mendoza, and J.O. Keith. 1976. Seabirds in
the Gulf of California: a vulnerable, international resource. Nat.
Res. J. 16:483-505.
22 Ashmole, N.P. 1971. Seabird ecology and the marine environment.
Pp. 223-286. In: D.S. Farner and J.B. King (eds.). Avian biology
Vol. 1. Acad. Press. London and New York. 586 pp.
23 Baldridge, A. 1973. The status of the brown pelican in the
Monterey region of California: past and present. Western Birds
4(4):93-100.
24 Bartholemew, G.A., Jr. and W.R. Dawson. 1954. Temperature
regulation in young pelicans, herons, and gulls. Ecology
35:466-472.
25 Baxter. 1967. Summary of biological information on the northern
anchovy. CA Coop. Fish. Investig. 11:110-116.
26 Blus, L.J. 1982. Further interpretation of the relation of
organochlorine residues in brown pelican eggs to reproductive
success. Environ. Pollut. 28:15-33.
27 Blus, L.J., A.A. Belisle, and R.M. Prouty. 1974. Relations of the
brown pelican to certain environmental pollutants. Pest. Monit. J.
7(3/4):181-194.
28 Blus, L.J., E. Cromartie, L. McNease, T. Joanen. 1979. Brown
pelican: population status, reproductive success, and
organochlorine residues in Louisiana 1971-1976. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 22:128-135.
29 Blus, L.J. and J.A. Keahey. 1978. Variation in reproductivity
with age in the brown pelican. Auk 95:128-134.
30 Blus, L.J., T.G. Lamont, and B.S. Neely, Jr. 1979. Effects of
organochlorine residues on eggshell thickness, reproduction, and
population status of brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) in
South Carolina and Florida, 1969-76.
31 Bond, R.M. 1942. Banding records of California brown pelicans.
Condor 44:116-121.
32 Brandt, C.A. 1984. Age and hunting success in the brown pelican:
influences of skill and patch choice on foraging efficiency.
Oecologia (Berlin) 62:132-137.
33 Briggs, K.T., D.B. Lewis, W.B. Tyler, and G.L. Hunt, Jr. 1981.
Brown pelicans in southern California: habitat use, and
environmental fluctuations. Condor 83:1-15.
34 Briggs, K.T., W.B. Tyler, D.B. Lewis, P.R. Kelly, and D.A. Croll.
1983. Brown pelicans in central and northern California. J. Field
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35 Briggs, K.T. 1985. Pers. comm. Center for Coastal Marine
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36 California Brown Pelican Advisory Committee Meeting Minutes. Dec.
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37 Carroll, S.P. and K.L. Cramer. 1985. Age differences in
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References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

38 Clapp, R.B., R.C. Banks, D. Morgan-Jacobs, and W.A. Hoffman. 1982.
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39 Crivellii, A.J. and R.W. Schrieber. 1984. Status of the
Pelecanidae. Biol. Conserv. 30:147-156.
40 Croll, D.A., L.T. Ballance, B.G. Wursig, and W.B. Tyler. 1987.
Movements and daily activity patterns of a brown pelican in central
California.
41 DeSante, D., R. LeValley, and R. Stallcup. 1972. Middle Pacific
Coast region. Amer. Birds 26(1):112-114.
42 Dietrich, C.S., Jr. 1979. Fecundity of the Atlantic manhaden,
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43 Dinsmore, J.J. 1974. White and brown pelicans feeding together.
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44 Duffy, D.C. 1980. Comparative reproductive behavior and
population regulation of seabirds of the Peruvian coastal current.
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45 Duffy, D.C. 1983. Competition for nesting space among Peruvian
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46 Duffy, D.C. 1983. Environmental uncertainty and commercial
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47 Duffy, D.C. 1983. The ecology of tick parasitism on densely
nesting Peruvian seabirds. Ecology 64(1):110-119.
48 Fogarty, M.J., S.A. Nesbitt, and C.R. Gilbert. 1981. Diet of
nestling brown pelicans in Florida. FL Field Nat. 9(3):38-40.
49 Fritts, T.H., A.B. Irvine, R.D. Jennings, L.A. Collum, W. Hoffman,
and M.A. McGehe. 1983. Turtles, birds, and mammals in the Gulf of
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50 Goldman, L.C. 1951. Audubon Field Notes, South Texas Region
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51 Gress, F. 1985. Pers. comm. Univ. of CA, Davis.
52 Gress, F., R.W. Risebrough, D.W. Anderson, L.E. Kiff, and J.R.
Jehl. 1973. Reproductive failures of double-crested cormorants in
southern California and Baja California. Wilson Bull.
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53 Gress, F., P.R. Kelly, D.B. Lewis, and D.W. Anderson. 1980.
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54 Velarde, E. 1985. Pers. comm. Gulf of California Conservation
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55 Gunter, G. and H. Hildebrand. 1951. The destruction of fish and
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56 Haight, B. 1985. Pers. comm. OR Dept. of Fish and Game,
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57 Haney, C.J. 1986. Pers. comm. Univ. of Georgia, Athens.
58 Haney, C.J. and P.A. McGillivary. 1985. Midshelf fronts in the
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Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

59 Henny, C.T. 1972. An analysis of the popualtion dynamics of
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60 Herbert, N.G. and R.W. Schreiber. 1975. Diurnal activity of brown
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61 Hickey, J.J. and D.W. Anderson. 1968. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
and eggshell changes in raptorial and fish eating birds. Science
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62 Hildebrand, M. 1972. Analysis of vertebrate structure. John
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63 Humphrey, S.R., C.H. Courtney, and D.J. Forrester. 1978.
Community ecology of the helminth parasites of the brown pelican.
Wilson Bull. 90(4):587-598.
64 Idyll, C.P. 1973. The anchovy crisis. Sci. Amer. 228:22-29.
65 Jehl, J.R., Jr. 1973. Studies of a declining population of
brown pelicans in northwestern Baja California. Condor 75:69-79.
66 Jordan, R. 1966. The predation of guano birds on the Peruvian
anchovy (E. ringens). CALCOFI Rept. 11:105-109.
67 Keith, J.O. 1978. Synergistic effects of DDE and food stress on
reproduction in brown pelicans and ringdoves. Ph.D. diss., OH St.
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68 Keith, J.O., L.A. Woods, Jr., and E.G. Hunt. 1971. Reproductive
failure in brown pelicans on the Pacific coast. Trans. N. Amer.
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69 King, K.A., D.R. Blankenship, R.T. Paul, and R.C.A. Rice. 1977.
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pelicans. Wilson Bull. 89(1):157-158.
70 King, K.A., E.L. Flickinger, and H.H. Hilderbrand. 1977. The
decline of brown pelicans on the Louisiana and Texas Gulf Coast.
Southwestern Nat. 21:417-431.
71 King, K.A., J.O. Keith, C.A. Mitchell, and J.E. Keirans. 1977.
Ticks as a factor in nest desertion of California brown pelicans.
Condor 79(4):507-509.
72 King, K.A. and C.A. Lefever. 1979. Effects of oil transferred
from incubating gulls to their eggs. Mar. Poll. Bull. 10:319-321.
73 King, K.A., S. Macko, P.L. Parker, and E. Payne. 1979.
Resuspension of oil: probable cause of brown pelican fatality.
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74 Krantz, W.C. 1968. A literature review of the ecology and
reproductive biology of the brown pelican. Unpubl. Staff Rept.
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75 Lamm, D.W. 1975. Symbiotic relationship within a mixed waterfowl
assembly. Condor 77(22):207.
76 Leck, C.F. 1973. Pelicans in the city of Lima, Peru. Condor
75:357.
77 Lee, D. 1986. Pers. comm. NC State Mus. of Nat. Hist.
78 Lincer, J.L., D. Krivit, J.E. Shaw. 1979. People and
"pan-handling" pelicans. FL Field Nat. 7(2):13-40.
79 MacCall, A.D. 1984. Seabird-fishery trophic interactions in
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Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

Proc. Pacific Seabird Group Symp. Seattle, WA, 6-8 Jan. 1982.
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80 Mendenhall, V.M. and R.M. Prouty. 1978. Recovery of breeding
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81 Montgomery, G.G. and M.L. Martinez. 1984. Timing of pelican
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82 Murphy, R.C. 1936. Oceanic birds of South America. Vol. 1-2.
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83 Nelson, J.B. 1977. Some relationships between food and breeding
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84 Nesbitt, S.A. 1986. Pers. comm. FL Game and Freshwater Fish
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85 Nesbitt, S.A., M.J. Fogarty, and L.E. Williams, Jr. 1977. Status
of Florida nesting brown pelicans, 1971-1976. Bird Banding
48:138-144.
86 Nesbitt, S.A., J.C. Ogden, H.W. Kale, II, B.W. Patty, and L.A.
Rowse. 1982. Florida atlas of breeding sites for herons and their
allies: 1976-1978. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-81/49.
87 Nesbitt, N.A., L.E. Williams, Jr., L. McNease, and T. Joanen.
1978. Brown pelican restocking efforts in Louisiana. Wilson Bull.
90:443-445.
88 Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas, Vol. 1. Univ.
Press, Austin.
89 Ohlendorff, H.M., R.W. Risebrough, and K. Vermeer. 1978. Exposure
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90 Orians, G.H. 1969. Age and hunting success in the brown pelican
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91 Osborn, R.G. and T.W. Custer. 1978. Herons and their allies:
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92 Pacific Fisheries Management Council. 1978. Implementation of
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93 Palmer, R.S. (ed.). 1962. Handbook of North American birds, Vol.
1, loons through flamingos. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven.
94 Peakall, D.B. 1975. Physiological effects of chlorinated
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95 Pearson. 1918. Death to the pelican. Bird-Lore 20:194-198.
96 Pennycuick, C.J. 1972. Animal flight. Edward Arnold, London.
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97 Portnoy, J.W. 1977. Nesting colonies of seabirds and wading
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98 Radovich, J. 1961. Relationships of some marine organisms of the
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Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

99 Risebrough, R.W., F.C. Sibley, and M.N. Kirven. 1971.
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100 Robbins, C.S. 1952. The changing seasons. A summary of the
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101 Schaefer, M.B. 1970. Men, birds and anchovies in the Peru
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102 Schmidt, T.T., R.W. Risebrough, and F. Gress. 1971. Input of
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103 Schnell, G.D., B.L. Woods, and B.J. Ploger. 1983. Brown pelican
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104 Schreiber, R.W. 1985. Pers. comm. Los Angeles County Museum.
105 Schreiber, R.W. 1976. Growth and development of nestling brown
pelicans. Bird-Banding 47(1):19-39.
106 Schreiber, R.W. 1976. Movements of color marked brown pelicans.
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107 Schreiber, R.W. 1977. Maintenance behavior and communication in
the brown pelican. Amer. Ornithol. Union., Ornithol. Mon. 22.
108 Schreiber, R.W. 1978. Eastern brown pelican. Pp. 23-24. In:
Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol 2: Birds. Univ. Press
of FL, Gainsville. 121 pp.
109 Schreiber, R.W. 1979. Reproductive performance of the eastern
brown pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis. Contrib. Sci. Nat. Hist.
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110 Schreiber, R.W. 1980. The brown pelican: an endangered species ?
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111 Schreiber, R.W. 1980. Nesting chronology of the eastern brown
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112 Thompson, B. 1986. Pers. comm. Texas Parks and Wildl.
113 Schreiber, R.W. and Delong. 1969. Brown pelican status in
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114 Schreiber, R.W. and R.W. Risebrough. 1972. Studies of the brown
pelican. Wilson Bull. 84(2):119-135.
115 Schreiber, R.W. and E.A. Schreiber. 1973. Florida's brown
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116 Schreiber, R.W. and E.A. Schreiber. 1982. Essential habitat of
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117 Schreiber, R.W. and E.A. Schreiber. 1983. Use of age-classes in
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118 Schreiber, R.W., E.A. Schreiber, D.W. Anderson, and D.W. Bradley.
1987. Plumage and molt of brown pelicans. Contr. Sci., Nat.
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119 Schreiber, R.W., G.E. Woolfenden, and W.E. Curtsinger. 1975.
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120 Sefton, J.W. 1950. The brown pelican as a scavenger. Condor
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121 Sivak, J.G., J.L. Lincer, and W. Bobier. 1977. Amphibious visual
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Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

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122 Stickel, W.H., W.L. Rwichel, and D.L. Hughes. 1979. Endrin in
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124 Sunada, J.S., P.R. Kelly, I.S. Yamahita, and F. Gress. 1981.
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125 Thompson, N.P., C.H. Courtney, D.J. Forrester, and F.H. White.
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126 Thompson, N.P., P.W. Rankin, P.E. Cowan, L.E. Williams, Jr., and
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127 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1979. Eastern Brown Pelican
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128 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. California Brown Pelican
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129 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Endangered Species
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130 U.S. National Fish and Wildlife Laboratory. 1980. Selected
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131 Van Tets, G.F. 1965. A Comparative study of some social
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132 Wetmore, A. 1945. A review of the forms of the brown pelican.
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133 Weins, J.A. and J.M. Scott. 1975. Model estimations of energy
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134 Williams, L.E., Jr. and T. Joanen. 1974. Age of first nesting in
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135 Williams, L.E., Jr. and L. Martin. 1968. Nesting status of the
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136 Williams, L.E., Jr. and L. Martin. 1971. Nesting populations of
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137 Winn, B. 1975. Pesticides decimate transplanted pelicans.
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138 Young, D.R., T.C. Heesen, G.N. Esra, and E.B. Howard. 1979.
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139 Coulter, M.C. 1986. Pers. comm. Savannah River Ecology Lab.,
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140 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Brown Pelican Recovery
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References - 7 (DRAFT) - References
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

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141 Harris, M. 1974. A field guide to birds of the Galapagos
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References - 8 (DRAFT) - References
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

18 Harris, M. 1974. A field guide to birds of the Galapagos Islands.
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References - 9 (DRAFT) - References
Species PELICAN, BROWN
Species Id ESIS101047
Date 14 MAR 96

42 Nesbitt, S.A., M.J. Fogarty, and L.E. Williams, Jr. 1977. Status
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allies: 1976-1978. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-81/49.
44 Gress, F. 1987. Pers. comm. Univ. of CA, Davis.

References - 10