(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - AKIALOA, KAUAI
OTHER COMMON NAMES - AKIALOA, KAUAI; AKIALOA, KAUAI (HONEYCREEPER); AKIALOA, HAWAII;AKIALOA, HAWAIIAN; AKIHIALOA; 'I'IWI; HONEYCREEPER; 'AKIALOA, KAUA'I; 'AKIALOA, HAWAI'I; 'AKIALOA and HAWAIIAN; 'AKIHIALOA
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - PASSERIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FRINGILLIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - HEMIGNATHUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - PROCERUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - HEMIGNATHUS PROCERUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Kauai 'Akialoa
Hemignathus procerus Cabanis, 1889
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Passeriformes FAMILY: Fringillidae
Adult male: Front and top of the head dark ashy olive, shading
into olive on the back, which becomes brighter on the rump; sides of
the face olive, with an indistinct olive line over the eye; body
beneath sulphur-yellow, light primrose on abdomen, the flanks washed
with olive; under tail-coverts olive-yellow; wing and tail-quills ashy
brown, edged outwardly with olive; secondaries and wing-coverts ashy
brown, very broadly edged with olive; irides dark hazel; bill black;
feet bluish black. Total length 19.05 cm, tail 5.08 cm, maxilla
following the curve 7.11 cm, difference between maxilla and
mandible 0.76 cm. Adult female: Above dingy yellowish buff, the
feathers on the head being yellowish olive with black centers; lores;
beneath olive-buff. Maxilla following the curve 6.47 cm, difference
between maxilla and mandible 0.64 cm (01).
A young female fledgling had a bill length of only 4.2 cm as
compared with the minimum value of 51 mm in adult females (02).
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
The Hawaiian honeycreepers, or drepanids, were in the family
Drepanididae, although some authors included most species in the
family Meliphagidae (01,03). Dr. Hans Gadow (01) considered the
Drepanididae formed a separate family of the Fringilliformes rather
than of Meliphagine birds or even of the Cinnyrimorphae, and that of
the Fringilliformes they are nearest allies to the Coerebidae.
Dr. Gadow further remarks on the relationship of the Drepanididae,
notes that two genera were considered, Fringillidae and not
Drepanididae, with which Perkins disagreed. Gadow concluded that all
the Sandwich Island birds in question are Drepanididae. He noted
resemblances to the Tanagridae and the Coerebidae. Amadon (02)
considered the Hawaiian honeycreepers in the family Drepanididae,
noting that Suskin (04) used Drepanidae and Mayr (05) favors
Drepanididae, but Amadon found there was a family of fishes Drepanidae
and a family of moths Drepanidae, and recommended that Drepanididae be
retained for the avian family. Amadon (02) noted that species then
assigned to the Drepanididae were once scattered among several
families, including the Fringillidae (finches), Dicaeidae
(flowerpeckers), and Australian honeyeaters (Meliphagidae).
Perkins (06) was the first to point out that the Drepanids are
divisible into two distinct groups, the group "chlorodrepanine", or
green section, or subfamily Psittirostrinae (which included the Kaua'i
'akialoa), and the group "Milanodrepanine", or subfamily Drepaniinae,
which had some black plumage. Amadon (02) concluded the diagnostic
characters of the Drepanididae and related families, e.g. Coerebidae,
Traupidae, etc., are so slight (when they can be determined at all)
that there could be scant objection to reducing them all to subfamily
status.
Pratt (07) notes the Hawaiian honeycreepers were traditionally
considered an endemic family Drepanididae, and their close affinity to
the cardueline finches. Pratt places the Hawaiian finches and
honeycreepers in the family Fringillidae, Subfamily Drepanidinae; the
Kaua'i 'akialoa in the tribe Hemignathini. Genus Hemignathus
(akialoas, nukupuus, and amakihis), Subgenus Hemignathus. Pratt
disputed Amadon's (02) claim that Hemignathus procerus had a
"strikingly larger bill" than the other akialoas (Hemignathus
obscurus), and recommended that H. procerus be considered a
subspecies. The 1983 AOU Checklist revised the family Fringillidae to
include the subfamily Drepanidinae (Hawaiian honeycreepers-formerly
family Drepanididae; which is divided into the tribe Psittirostrini
(Hawaiian finches), the tribe Hemignathini (Hawaiian creepers and
allies, including Kaua'i 'akialoa (Hemignathus procerus), and the
tribe Drepanidini (mamos, iiwis, and allies). A synonym for
Hemignathus obscurus (Gmelin), the Hawaiian 'akialoa, is Certhia
obscura Gmelin (08).
Perkins (06) referred to the akialoas as Hemignathus, and to the
nukupuus, which also had the native names "akialoa, 'akialoa nukupu'u,
or Nukupu'u), as Heterorhynchus.
Wilson and Evans (01) use the name Hemignathus procerus with
the synonyms Hemignathus obscurus and H. stejnegeri.
E.H. Brown (09) used the subspecies Hemignathus obscurus
procerus for the Kaua'i 'akialoa, as do Greenway (10) and Olson and
James (11). H. obscurus and H. procerus are considered conspecific by
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
some authors; constituting a superspecies (08).
There are 102 specimens of the Kaua'i 'akialoa in museums
distributed as follows: American Museum of Natural History, New York
(25), Auckland Institute and Museum, Auckland (1), Academy of Natural
Science, Philadelphia (1), B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu (16), British
Museum of Natural History, London (13, including 1 in spirits),
Cambridge Univ. Museum of Zoology, Cambridge (7, including 2 syntypes
and 1 in spirits), Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh (2), Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard, Cambridge (4), Museum National
D'Historie Naturelle, Paris (2), National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, D.C. (8, including 2 skeletons, 3 skulls), Royal Ontario
Museum. Ottawa (7), Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden (4),
Staatliches Museum fur Tierkunde, Dresden (1), Washington State
Museum, Univ. Wash., Seattle (1) (12).
Common names used for the species include; Kaua'i 'akialoa, kuai
(Honeycreeper) 'akialoa, Hawai'i 'akialoa, Hawaiian 'akialoa,
'akihialoa, and 'i'iwi.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Kaua'i 'akialoa (Hemignathus procerus) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found including the
State of Hawai'i.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawai'i
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Hawai'i Div. of Forestry and Wildl.,
Dept. of Land and Natural Resources
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Kaua'i 'akialoa (Hemignathus procerus) is listed as
Endangered in the 1986 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. This
species is also listed by the U.S. in the Convention on Nature
Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere Annex
(1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
This species was formerly important to forest ecosystems as an
insectivore, flower pollinator, and a vector of seed dispersal. It is
among the many rare birds sought on Kaua'i by bird watchers.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - Pre Act 1, Listed as Endangered
70/08/25:35 FR 13519/13520 - Pre Act 6, Proposed Relisting
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Final Rule on Previous List, Endangered
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Notice of Status Review, 5-year review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Notice of Review, 5-Year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25522/25525 - Notice of 5-year review completion
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Evergreen Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Forested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Palustrine FO3
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
All that is known of the habitat associations of the Kaua'i
'akialoa comes from the work of Munro (01,13), Palmer (01,03),
Perkins (06), and Richardson and Bowles (16); all of which is
documented by Banko (14). The Kaua'i 'akialoa in the 1890's occurred
in all forests of Kauai from a few hundred feet elevation to the
highest elevations of the upper rainforest, presumeably being most
abundant in the mesic koa forests around Kaholuamanu in the south-
central mountains. Its range at that time must have included the very
wet 'ohi'a rainforest at 4,000 to 5,000 ft., through the mesic Koa
forests at about 2,500 to 3,500 ft., into the lowland kukui forest and
lowland introduced vegetation. The only 4 positive reports of the
Kaua'i 'akialoa this century were on the upper plateau between
Kaholuamanu on the south (at an elevation of 3,600 ft. in a area of
mixed koa and 'ohi'a trees) to the upper Koai'e Valley (at an
elevation of about 4,000 ft. in an area of 'ohi'a trees). The
akialoa's very limited range this century apparently included only a
portion of the 4,600 hectares in the southern portion of the Alaka'i
Swamp. Numerous meandering mountain streams dissect the area so that
except for major ridges, which occasionally broaden into relatively
flat areas and bogs, the land is a maze of narrow knife-like ridges,
cliffs, ledges, and steep inclines to adjoining streams. The
predominant 'ohi'a canopy ranges from 12 to 17 meters. Canopy cover
ranges from 60 to 90 percent, and the understory is dense native
shrubs. Rainfall ranges from 127 to 508 cm annually. Temperatures
range from 35 to 80 degrees Farenheit (37,38). The soils are
Ultisoles, Histosols, and Spodosols (55), and appear to be mostly
clay-loams with much organic detritus; clay lenses surface in the bogs
(37). There is no habitation or agriculture in this rainforest.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Trees-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The Kauai 'akialoa was partial to the nectar of some kinds of
arborescent Lobeliaceae (called haha and aha-wai by the natives),
especially those with large corollas, while to certain kinds they pay
no attention at all. They were known to feed on the 'ohi'a flower
nectar, spiders, geometrid caterpillars, wood- and bark- eating
gelechiid larvae, mature beetles of Carabidae, small metallic weevils
of the genus Oodemias, Anobiidae, larvae of the latter and of
Cossonidae, small cockroaches, and the remarkable crickets
(Prognathogryllides), peculiar to the islands (06). Perkins (06)
believed they are all still largely nectar-eaters, although possibly
on the way to becoming entirely insectivorous. The insects on which
Hemignathus feeds are sought for ... in or beneath the bark of trees
and in decaying wood... In the large koa trees... the 'akialoa could
be traced by its audible tapping on the bark, the sound resembling
that produced by the strokes of the beak of the nukupu'u, except that
it was less loud.
The specimen collected July 20, 1960 had stomach contents of
parts of four or more large beetles, probably carabids, parts of three
or more large beetle larvae, probably wood-boring species, two large
black, hooked mandibles of beetle or spider; and one sprouting seed.
The 'akialoa seen on July 19, 1960 by David Woodside was actively
foraging on the moss, lichen, and fern-covered trunk of a large 'ohi'a
(16). The 'akialoa seen by Huber in March 1965 was feeding on 'ohi'a
blossoms (15).
Sometimes the Kaua'i 'akialoa descends to the ground to forage
for grubs and insects amongst the dead leaves and possibly to pick up
gizzard stones. It searches the bases of the leaves of the i'ei'e
(Freycinetia) and halapepe (Dracaena) (13).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Almost nothing is known of the Kaua'i 'akialoa's home range and
territory. The available evidence suggests that most of Hawaii's
endemic land birds do not move more than a mile or two from the nest
in which they hatched. Some species do wander up and down, or around,
the mountain slopes at different times of the year (20). Palmer (in:
03) says this bird does not fly about in flocks, but keeps singly or
in pairs; it is sometimes seen in company with 'amakihi and 'akikiki
(Kauai creeper).
PERIODICITY:
The Kaua'i 'akialoa is probably primarily diurnal (37).
They answer each other with a chirp, and also have a distinct
call much like a linnet's but a little louder. Both male and female
have a lightsweet song, the female with fewer notes than the male. In
January and February of 1891, Munro did not notice their singing, but
in March and April it was quite noticeable, and they also seemed to
have a different chirp at Hanalei where he was in April, evidently a
breeding season (13).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
The Kaua'i 'akialoa is non-migratory, but may move in relation to
food supply (37).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The Kaua'i 'akialoa inhabited all of the forests of Kaua'i in the
latter part of the 19th century. The few observations (4 or 5) this
century have all been in the relatively pristine rainforest of the
Alaka'i Swamp, where the average height of the dominant 'ohi'a trees
is about 12 meters, and there is a dense understory of native shrubs.
There is some koa in the more mesic portions of this forest. Canopy
cover varies from 60 to 90 percent (37,38).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
The nest, eggs, and young of the Kaua'i 'akialoa have never been
found (06,18,56). Females Munro dissected in April had enlarged
ovaries, which with their singing and chasing at that time, denoted
breeding season (13). A female 'akialoa collected July 20, 1960 was
apparently in postbreeding condition.
Perkins (06) once found the nest of Hemignathus obscurus on the
island of Hawai'i. It was built towards the extremity of one of the
largest spreading branches of a koa, placed above a fork and well
concealed. It contained only one young already able to fly,
while a second one was seen sitting on the branch outside the nest,
with the old birds. The nest itself so far as he could get sight of
it, appeared to be quite similar in form to that of Chlorodrepanis
(=Amakihi), but was better concealed amongst the lichens covering the
branch, and these appeared to have been partly used in its
construction. This nest was found at the end of June, and in the same
district (Kona) many young birds were being fed by their parents.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
None of these factors are known (37,38,56). Incubation is
probably about 2 weeks (37). Breeding season appears to be in April
(13).
PARENTAL CARE:
Nothing is known of the parental care of the Kaua'i 'akialoa.
The nest, eggs, and young have never been found (06,18,55). The young
would be altricial (37).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Limiting factors are probably predation and disease. The Kaua'i
'akialoa has probably only been seen 4 to 6 times this century, last
collected in 1960, and last sighting may have been in 1965 (14,15,16);
it may now be extinct (14,37,38) for Sincock (37) did not find it from
1967 through 1984, and it was not seen during intensive multiple-man
surveys in 1981 and 1985. However, many decades past between sighting
of the Kaua'i 'akialoa and other rare Hawaiian birds, and their is a
possibility that a few still exist in some remote portion of the
Alaka'i Swamp or on privately-owned land to the south of the Alaka'i
Swamp. None of the factors of population biology are knwon. It
became rare about the turn of the century. Perkins (06), Palmer (in
03), and Munro (13) all noted that the Kaua'i 'akialoa was susceptible
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
to disease, and noted the swellings on the feet of 'akialoa (probably
avian pox) (37). Perkins believed the disease was introduced with
introduced poultry (06), and both tame and wild chickens (Gallus
gallus) may still be a factor in spread of avian pox (37,38). Perkins
(06) also described two internal parasites found in Kaua'i 'akialoa.
The management objective of the Kaua'i Forest Bird Recovery Plan was
to increase their population to 1,000 so that they could be considered
for downlisting to threatened status (37,38).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The Kaua'i 'akialoa was probably affected by the introduced black
rat (Rattus rattus) (37,38,46). Disease, e.g. avian pox and avian
malaria, may have been the factor that caused the major decline in the
populations of many of the Hawaiian forest birds, and the possible
extinction of the Kaua'i 'akialoa. Introduced mosquitoes, e.g. (Culex
quinquifasiatus) can transmit avian malaria, or pox, and pox could be
transmitted mechanically by introduced birds. The raising of domestic
chickens, which must be inoculated against pox to be successful in
Hawai'i, or the introduced passerine or game birds may be a source of
pox (02,27,37,38).
Man is ultimately responsible for the decline and extinction of
the 'akialoa and other Hawaiian avifauna (37). Mountainspring (53)
attempted an ecological model of the effect of habitat loss, avian
disease (mainly malaria and defined by mosquito presence), feral pig
(Sus scrofa) activity, and food competition from the Japanese White-
eye (Zosterops japonica). Because of mechanical spread of pox its
influence is not fully considered (37). There have been no
significant studies of pox in Hawaiian avifauna.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The Kaua'i 'akialoa was discovered in 1888. In the 1890's it
was quite numerous in some localities and scarce in others over a
broad altitudinal and geographic range on the island of Kaua'i. By
1900 fewer were reported in the principal specimen collecting areas
(14). Since 1900 this species has probably been seen only four times,
with the last published report of it being sighted by Huber in 1965,
(15) although Pratt (07) cites a personal communication by Phillip
Bruner of a sighting in 1968 or 1969. The last positive record of the
Kaua'i 'akialoa was a female collected on July 20, 1960 (16).
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
The reasons for the possible extinction of the Kaua'i 'akialoa
will never be fully determined, but the casues of decline of forest
birds in Hawai'i are believed to be: 1) Habitat destruction and
degradation (i.e., forest clearing and alteration for agricultural
development, etc., has resulted in vegetation composition changes),
both past and present, by man, introduced herbivores (grazing), and
plants, (02,06,11,13,14,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,
31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45); 2) Predation by
introduced predators, e.g. black rats, cats, common mynah
(Acridotheres tristis) (02,06,14,16,17,18,20,29,34,35,38,41,46);
3) Avian disease, e.g. pox and malaria (02,06,16,17,18,19,29,33,34,35,
38,45,46,47,48,49,50); 4) Competition from exotic birds (02,18,19,29,
33,34,35,37,38,45,51,52,53,54); 5) Over-specialization, lack of
ability to adjust, and impoverishment of the gene pool (02,06,35,38,
51,52); 6) Hunting and collecting (02,06,18,19,29). Predation and
disease were the most likely to have caused declines and continued
suppression of the populations. Black rats are ubiquitous throughout
the mountains, and feral cats (felis catus) are abundant in some mesic
areas. Pox-type lesions are common on exotic birds in the lowlands,
and they may serve to carry disease into the mountain forests (37).
No one doubts that there were major losses in habitat; this is
indicated in Mountainspring's (33) recent attempt to make a
mathematical model of some of the limiting factors.
Potential threats to the Kaua'i 'akialoa, if it still exists,
include proposed dams for hydroelectric power and irrigation storage,
increased human use (e.g. development, hiking/camping, etc.) of
present habitat, conditons favoring increase of vectors of avian
disease, e.g. mosquitoes, further introduction of predators, e.g.
snakes that eat birds, further introductions of, or escape of, caged
birds capable of living in the rain forest of the Alaka'i Swamp,
thereby increasing competition and disease-parasite problems, further
introductions and spread of exotic plants, and further introductions
and failure to control ungulates (16,20,35,37,38,50,53).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Birds Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 66 pp.
The prime objective is to prevent the extinction of the Kaua'i
'akialoa (Hemignathus procerus) by increasing their population to the
point that they can be considered for downlisting to threatened
status; protect their habitat; and determine a population level and
habitat components necessary for reclassifying the species to
threatened and/or delisted status. This species has not been seen
since 1965, and determination of its existence is of the upper-most
importance. If individuals are located, the following will serve as
guidance in recovery of this species.
1. Provide adequate habitat to maintain a viable population.
A. Adopt essential habitat statement.
B. Manage existing habitat.
a. Control human activities (i.e., control altitude of
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
aircraft overflights and landing on key habitats,
control land development (reservoirs, irrigation
systems, buildings and structures, and road and
trail maintenance and construction)).
b. Control predators (i.e., prevent establishment of
mongoose on Kaua'i; control feral pigs, feral
goats, deer, and livestock).
c. Control exotic vegetation.
d. Control vectors and exotic hosts of disease.
-Prevent development conducive to mosquito
breeding at elevations above 2,500 feet.
-Prevent introduction of a "high elevation"
mosquito.
-Control exotic hosts of avian disease.
C. Secure and protect key habitats (i.e., land acquistion).
2. Increase populations to viable levels.
A. Law enforcement.
a. Prevent direct take (poaching).
b. Control scientific permits and collections.
c. Prevent illegal introductions of exotic animals
that may be detrimental to this species.
B. Develop a captive propagation program and sperm bank.
a. Develop techniques with surrogate species.
b. Capture endangered birds.
c. Raise endangered birds for reintroduction.
d. Maintain sperm bank for this species.
e. Release captive-reared stock into protected
habitat.
f. Develop a plan and techniques for artificial
manipulation of nesting biology.
-Develop suitable nesting structures.
C. Determine limiting factors on production and survival and
means of control (i.e., significance of: predators; avian
disease; competition; and effects of habitat degradation
by man, exotic animals, and plants).
D. Determine population level and habitat components necessary
for reclassifying this species.
3. Monitor populations of native and introduced birds.
4. Implement effective public information program.
5. Coordination and consolidation of research and management.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Wilson, S.B. and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiiensis: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
02 Amadon, D. 1950. The Hawaiian honeycreepers. (Aves. Drepaniidae)
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 95:151-262.
03 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vol. R.H. Porter, London.
04 Sushkin, P.P. 1929. On the systematic position of the
Drepaniidae. Verhandl. VI Internatl. Ornith. Kongr. Kopenhagen.
379-381 pp.
05 Mayr, E. 1943. The zoogeographic position of the Hawaiian
islands. Condor 45:45-48.
06 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrata, in D. Sharp (ed.) Fauna
Hawaiiensis. Vol. I, Part IV. The Univ. Press, Cambridge,
England.
07 Pratt, H.D. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic avifauna
of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. Thesis. LA State Univ., Baton
Rouge.
08 American Ornithologist's Union. 1983. Checklist of North
American birds. Sixth ed. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS. 877 pp.
09 Bryan, E.H. 1942. Checklist of Hawaiian birds. Elepaio
2(10):70-71.
10 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
world. Special Publ. 13, Amer. Comm. for Internatl. Wildl. Prot.,
New York.
11 Olson, S.L., and H.F. James. 1982. Prodromus of the fossil
avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 365 pp.
12 Banko, W.E. 1979. History of endemic Hawaiian bird specimens in
museum collections. Avian Hist. Rept. 2, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
13 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu, HI
14 Banko, W.E. 1984. Part I. Population histories-Species accounts,
Forest birds: Akialoa, Nukupuu, and Akiapolaau. CPSU/UH Avian
history rept. 9, Dept. of Bot., Univ. of HI at Manoa, Honolulu.
15 Huber, L.N. 1965. Field notes: Alakai Swamp, Kauai, March, 1965.
Elepaio 26(8):71.
16 Richardson, F., and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. # 227, 51 pp.
17 Anon. 1973. Hawaii's endangered forest birds. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR.
18 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of HI,
Honolulu.
19 Berger, A.J. 1972. Hawaiian birds. The Wilson Bull.
28(2):212-222.
20 Berger, A.J. 1975. Hawaiian honeycreepers, 1778-1974. Elepaio
35(9 and 10).
21 Banko, W.E. 1971. Preservation of Maui's endangered forest birds.
Condor 73(1):120-121.
22 Bryan, E.H. 1971. A summary of the Hawaiian birds. Proc. Sixth
Pac. Sci. Congress 4:185-189.
23 Bryan, W.A. 1915. Natural history of Hawaii. The Hawaiian
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
Gazette Co., Ltd. Honolulu. p. 309.
24 Giffin, J. 1978. Ecology of the feral pig on the Island of
Hawaii. Pittman-Robertson Proj., HI Dept. Land and Nat. Res.,
Honolulu.
25 Giffin, J. 1982. Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea. Pittman-
Robertson Proj., HI Dept. Land and Nat. Res., Honolulu.
26 Haley, D. 1975. The last Oo. Defenders of wildlife. 476-479 pp.
27 Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands, being a
complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes
on their habits. T.G. Thrum, Honolulu, HI.
28 Judd, C.S. 1927. The story of the forests of Hawaii. Paradise of
the Pacific. 40(10):9-18.
29 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Maui-Molokai Forest Bird
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 110 pp.
30 King, W.B. 1977. Red data book, Vol. 2: Birds. Internatl. Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Res., Morges, Switz.
31 Kirch, P. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians on the
native ecosystem. Pacific Sci. 36:1-14.
32 Olson, S.L., and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the Hawaiian
Islands; evidence of wholesale extinction by man before western
contact. Science 217:633-635.
33 Mountainspring, S. 1986. An ecological model of the effects of
exotic factors on limiting Hawaiian honeycreeper populations. Ohio
J. Sci. 86(3):095-100.
34 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Hawaii Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR.
35 Scott, J.M. and J.L. Sincock. 1985. Hawaiian birds. Audubon
Wildl. Rept. 1985. Pp. 549-562.
36 Scott, J.M., et al. 1986. Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian
Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in
Avian Biology 9.
37 Sincock, J.L. 1967-1984. Pers. observ. U.S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv. (Retired), Uniontown, PA 15401.
38 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 66 pp.
39 Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawaii's native
biota. Univ. of HI, Honolulu. pp. 180-243
40 Tinker, S.W. 1938. Animals of Hawaii. Nippi Jiji Publ. Co. Ltd.,
Honolulu, 188 pp.
41 Warner, R.E. 1961. Hawaii's birds birth and death of an island
biota. Pacific Discovery 14(5):6-14.
42 Warshauer, F.R. 1980. An overview of the feral pig problem in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Vol. 8. Nat. Park Serv., Wash.,
D.C. 476-480 pp.
43 Warshauer, F.R., et al. 1983. The distribution, impact and
potential management of the introduced vine (Passiflora mollisima)
in Hawaii. Tech. Rept. 48, NPS Study, Univ. of HI, Honolulu.
44 Wenkam, R. 1967. Kauai and the park country of Hawaii. Sierra
Club, San Francisco, CA. 159 pp.
45 Yates, S. 1984. On the cutting edge of extinction, Audubon July
1984. Pp. 62-85.
46 Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly
(Rattus rattus) L., that influenced the decline of endemic forest
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 31:109-133.
47 Ali Navab, H. 1970. Epizootilogical survey of avian malaria in
the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. Thesis in Entomology, Univ. of HI,
Honolulu. 64 pp.
48 Laird, M., and C. van Riper. 1981. Questionable reports of
Plasmodium from birds in Hawaii, with recognition of P. Plasmodium
spp. capistranoe (Russel, 1932), as the avian parasite there.
Parasitological topics. Soc. Protozoal. Publ. 1. 159-165 pp.
49 van Riper, C., et al. 1982. The impact of malaria on birds in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park., Univ. of HI, Honolulu.
50 Warner, R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the
extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
51 Henshaw, H.W. 1910. Letter in report of the board of
commissioneers of agriculture and forestry of the territory of
Hawaii, in rept. of the committee on the introduction of birds into
the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian Gazette Co., Pp. 61-64.
52 Henshaw, H.W. 1901. Introduction of foreign birds into the
Hawaiian Islands with notes on some of the introduced species. The
Hawaiian Annual, T.G. Thrum Publ., Honolulu 27:132-142.
53 Moulton, M.P., and S.L. Pimm. 1983. The introduced Hawaiian
avifauna; biogeographic evidence for competition. Am. Nat.
121:669-690.
54 Mountainspring, S., and J.M. Scott. 1985. Interspecific
competition among Hawaiian forest birds. Ecological Monographs
55(2):219-239.
55 Armstrong, R.W. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. Press of HI,
Honolulu. 40-41 pp.
56 Scott, J.M., et al. 1980. Records of nests, eggs, nestlings and
cavity nesting of endemic passerine birds in Hawaii, Elepaio
40:163-168.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Sincock, J.L. 1967-1984. Pers. obs. Kauai Field Station. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Retired. Uniontown, PA.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Kauai Forest Bird Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Portland, OR. 66 pp.
03 Richardson, F., and J. Bowles. 1964. A survey of the birds of
Kauai, Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. # 227, 51 pp.
04 Huber, L.N. 1966. Field notes: Alakai Swamp, Kauai, March 1965.
Elepaio Vol 26. No. 8, Feb. 1966. Pp. 71.
05 Pratt, H.D. 1979. A systematic analysis of the endemic avifauna
of the Hawaiian Islands. Ph.D. Thesis. LA State Univ., Baton
Rouge.
06 Donaghho, W.R. 1941. A report of ornithological observations made
on Kauai. Elepaio 2(7):52.
07 Munro, G.C. 1944. Birds of Hawaii. Tongg Pub. Co., Honolulu, HI
189 pp.
08 Bryan, W.A., and A. Seale. 1901. Notes on the birds of Kauai.
Occas. Pap. B.P. Bishop Mus. 1(3):129-137.
09 Banko, W.E. 1984. Part I. Population histories-Species Accounts,
Forest Birds: Akialoa, Nukupuu, and Akiapolaau. CPSU/UH Avian
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species AKIALOA, KAUAI
Species Id ESIS101049
Date 14 MAR 96
History Rept. 9. Dept. of Bot., Univ. Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.
10 Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The avifauna of Laysan and the
neighboring islands. 3 Vol. R.H. Porter, London.
11 Wilson, S.B., and A.H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiiensis: The
birds of the Sandwich Islands. R.H. Porter, London.
12 Perkins, R.C.L. 1903. Vertebrates, in D. Sharp (ed.) Fauna
Hawaiiensis. Vol. 1, Part IV. The Univ. Press, Cambridge,
England.
13 Warner, Richard. 1986. Pers. comm. Mus. of Vert. Zool., Univ. of
Calif. at Berkeley, CA.
References - 4