(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PLOVER, PIPING
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PLOVER and PIPING
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CHARADRIIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - CHARADRIIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - CHARADRIUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - MELODUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - CHARADRIUS MELODUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Piping Plover
Charadrius melodus Ord, 1824
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Charadriiformes FAMILY: Charadriidae
Description: Piping plovers are one of five North American
species of belted plovers. They have an overall body length of 17 cm
(01) and weigh between 46 and 64 grams (average 55 gm.) (02,03). Wing
lengths span 11.0-12.7 cm, tarsi range from 2.1-2.4 cm, and culmen
lengths vary from 1.0 to 1.4 cm (02,03,04). Throughout the year,
adults have sand-colored upper body parts, white undersides, and
orange legs. During the breeding season, adults acquire single black
forehead and breast bands, and orange bills (04,05,06,07). In
general, males have brighter bands than females, and inland birds
have more complete bands than East Coast birds (02,04,08,09).
Post-breeding birds lose the bands and orange on their bill but are
easily distinguished from snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) and
collared plovers (Charadrius collaris) by their slightly larger size
and orange legs (10). Fledgling plumage is similar to adult
post-breeding plumage. Juveniles acquire adult plumage the spring
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
after they hatch (04,11).
Taxonomy: Described as a race of Charadrius hiaticula (12), the
taxonomy of piping plovers has undergone a number of revisions (12,13,
14). Ord (1824) was the first to consider piping plovers a separate
species, but it was not until the fourth edition of the AOU Checklist
that the binomial, Aegialitis meloda, was changed to Charadrius
melodus (02,08,15,16). In addition to changes in the binomial,
ornithologists have argued for over 100 years about acceptance of 2
subspecies: C. m. melodus (Atlantic birds) and C. m. circumcinctus
(inland birds). The first 2 editions of the AOU Checklist listed the
2 forms, the third and fourth listed 1 form (14,17,18,19). Moser's
argument that breast bands differed between inland and coastal birds
facilitated changing back to 2 forms in the 1945 supplement of the
checklist (13). In 1959, Wilcox reported a variety of breast band
forms from birds on Long Island (02). Subsequent morphological
measurements of Atlantic and inland birds did not indicate there was a
significant difference between birds from different regions (02,08,
20). Haig (11) collected electrophoretic samples from piping plovers
in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, North Dakota, Minnesota, and New Brunswick,
and was not able to detect a genetic difference between local or
regional populations. The subspecies designation is accepted by the
AOU 1957 Checklist only (21).
Reference Materials: Early specimens are referenced in Wilson
and Bonaparte (12). Haig (25) has a computerized listing of most
piping plover skins in North America. Accurate drawings of adults and
chicks appear in Johnsgard (06). Jehl (22) has good comparative
pictures of piping plover and other Charadrinae chicks. The "Prairie
Waters" segment of the Canadian Broadcasting Corp. show "The Nature of
Things" has 20 minutes of piping plover behavior (23). Likewise, the
Non-Game program of the Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources has an
18 minute audio slide show which features piping plover adults,
chicks, nests, eggs, habitat, etc. (24). Finally, the Cornell Univ.,
Laboratory of Ornithology has piping plover slides in their collection
(25).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Threatened
Alabama; State Listed
Alabama; Unofficially Listed
Arkansas; State Recognized
U.S. Misc. Caribbean Islands; Federal Threatened
Florida; Federal Threatened
Florida; State Recognized
Georgia; Federal Threatened
Georgia; State Recognized
Kentucky; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Threatened
Louisiana; State Recognized
Maryland; Federal Threatened
Maryland; State Recognized
Mississippi; State Recognized
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
Coded Status
North Carolina; State Recognized
Puerto Rico; State Recognized
South Carolina; State Recognized
Virgin Islands; Federal Threatened
Virgin Islands; State Recognized
Virginia; State Listed
E: Federal Endangered
T: Federal Threatened
Federal Migratory
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The piping plover (Charadrius melodus) has been designated an
Endangered species in the Great Lakes watershed in the States of IL,
IN, MI, MN, NY, OH, PA, and WI and the Province of Ontario; the piping
plover has also been designated a Threatened species elsewhere
throughout its range (which includes the northern Great Plains,
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Canada,
Mexico, the Bahamas, and West Indies) pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16
U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. Critical Habitat has not been
designated for this species.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.), which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
This species is also protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
BIA -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Bureau of Indian Affairs
lands.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered. (IL) Resident and Migratory
Non-game Bird. (NJ) Undetermined.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(IL) Dept. of Conserv./ 17 IL Admin. Code 1010.30, Feb. 1982;
Smith Hurd IL Annot. Stat. Ch. 61, Sec. 2.2;
(IA) Div. of Fish and Game/ IA Admin. Code 290-19.1, Sept. 1977;
(MI) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MI Compiled Laws Annot., Sec. 299.221 to
299.230, MI Admin. Code 299.1021 to 299.1028, Feb. 1983,
Rule 6(1);
(MN) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MN Code of Ag. Rules, Sec. 1.5600 to
1.5601, Eff. Dec. 1, 1983;
(NJ) Dept. of Environ. Protection/ Div. of Fish, Game and Wildl.,
NJ Admin. Code 7:25-11.2, Eff. Mar. 29, 1979; 7:25-20.1,
20.2, Jan. 14, 1981;
(WI) Dept. of Nat. Res./ NR 27.03 WI Admin. Code, Eff. Oct.,
1981.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(IN) Div. of Fish and Wildl./ IN Stat. Annot., Sec. 14-2-8.5-1,
310 IN Admin. Code 3-3-6;
(OH) Dept. of Nat. Res., Div. of Wildl./ OH Admin. Code
1501:31-23-01, Eff. July 11, 1980;
(PA) Game Comm./ 58 PA Code Sec. 147.1, 147.21, Mar. 1983.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Threatened. (AL) Nongame Wildlife Species.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AL) Div. of Game and Fish/ Game and Fish Reg. 87-GF-7;
(MA) Div. of Fish. and Wildl./ MA Gen. Laws Annot. 131, Sec. 26A;
(NY) Dept. of Environ. Conserv./ 6 NY Code, Rules and Regs.
182.5, Apr. 30, 1983;
(SD) Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks/ Admin. Rules of SD 41:10:02,
Eff. Mar. 16, 1978;
(VA) Comm. of Game and Inland Fish./ Code of VA Sec. 29-230 to
29-237.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Threatened. (AR) Protected
Wildlife. (CO) Non-game Bird. (ME)
Migratory Game Bird. (TX) Wild Game Bird.
(WY) Protected Bird.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AR) Game and Fish Comm./ AR Stat., Sec. 47-101, 47-117, 47-118,
and 47-119;
(CO) Div. of Wildl./ CO Rev. Stat., Sec. 33-8-103(4); 2 Code of
CO Regs. 406-8, No. 1000 and 1000b, Dec., 1982;
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
(CT) Dept. of Environ. Prot./ CT Gen. Stat. Annot., Sec. 26-40d
and 26-40e;
(DE) Dept. of Nat. Res. and Environ. Control/ 7 DE Code Annot.,
Sec. 601;
(GA) Game and Fish Div./ Rules and Regs. of the State of GA, Sec.
391-4-13-.09, Jan. 11, 1981;
(FL) Game and Freshwater Fish Comm./ Rule 39-27.03 FL Admin.
Code, July 1983;
(KS) Fish and Game Comm./ KS Admin. Regs. 23-17-1, May 1980;
(KY) Dept. of Fish and Wildl. Res./ KY Rev. Stat. 150.183, 301 KY
Admin. Reg. 3:061;
(LA) Wildl. and Fish. Comm./ LA Stat. Annot. 56:1901 to 56:1907;
(ME) Dept. of Inland Fish. and Wildl./ ME Rev. Stat. Annot., Sec.
7001, 7751-7756;
(MD) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MD Nat. Res. Code Annot., Sec.
4-2A-01 to 4-2A-09, 10-2A-01 to 10-2A-09, Code of MD Regs.
08.03.01.43, Supp. 4;
(MS) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ MS Public Notice No. 2156, Eff.
Sept. 1, 1981;
(MO) Dept. of Conserv./ MO Rev. Stat. 252.240, 3 Wildl. Code of
MO 10-4.111, Eff. Jan. 1, 1983;
(MT) Dept. of Fish, Wildl., and Parks/ MT Code Annot. 87-5-101 to
112, MT Admin. Register 12.5.201;
(NE) Game and Parks Comm./ NE Admin. Rules and Regs., Vol. 13,
6-(4) 1984, Rev. Stat. of NE, Sec. 37-430 to 438;
(NH) Fish and Game Dept./ NH Code of Admin. Rules Fis. 1001.01,
1001.02, Eff. Apr. 28, 1980;
(NM) Dept. of Game and Fish/ NM Reg. No. 624, Eff. July 22, 1983;
(NC) Wildl. Res. Comm./ 15 NC Admin. Code 10 I .0003, Eff.
July 28, 1979;
(ND) Game and Fish Dept./ ND Century Code 20.1-10-02 and
20.1-02-05;
(OK) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ 29 OK Stat. Annot., Sec. 2-109,
2-135, 7-501, 7-502, 7-504, and 7-602;
(PR) Commonwealth of PR, Dept. of Nat. Res./ Reg. for the Mngmt.
of Threatened and Endangered Sp. in the Commonwealth of PR,
1985;
(RI) Dept. of Environ. Mngmt./ Gen. Laws of RI Sec. 20-37-1 to
20-37-5;
(SC) Wildl. and Marine Res. Dept./ SC Regs. 123-150;
(TX) Parks and Wildl. Dept./ 31 TX Admin. Code Sec. 57.133 to
57.136 (127.30.09.001 to 127.30.09.006), July 1977; Vernon's
TX Codes Annot., Parks and Wildl. Code 63.001, 64.001, and
66.114;
(VI) Dept. of Conserv. and Cultural Affairs/ Title 3, Chap. 22,
VI Code of Laws;
(WY) Game and Fish Dept./ WY Stat. Annot., Sec. 23-1-302.
STATE: Alabama, North Dakota
UNOFFICIAL LIST: (AL) Endangered; Vertebrate Animals of Alabama
in Need of Special Attention. AL Agric. Exp.
Sta., Auburn Univ., April 1986;
(ND) Threatened; ND Chapter of the Wildl. Soc.,
Status - 5 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
1986.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
(COSEWIC) lists the piping plover as Endangered. Ontario also lists
the piping plover as Endangered on their Provincial list (Endangered
Species Act, Chapter 138, Revised Stat. of Ontario, 1980).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The piping plover is a rare and attractive shorebird, unknown to
most beachgoers. The species has a nonconsumptive recreational value
to bird watchers and in some areas of the species range it has been
known to have a value for food. There is no negative value to man.
The species was hunted for recreation/food in the early 20th Century
and this may still be a problem in Newfoundland and the West Indies
(05,34,40).
Status - 6 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Residential
Commercial and Services
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and Util
Cropland and Pasture
Herbaceous Rangeland
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Mixed Rangeland
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
Dry Salt Flats
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Strip Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, lower perennial UB4
Riverine, lower perennial UB3
Riverine, lower perennial UB2
Riverine, lower perennial UB1
Riverine, lower perennial FL4
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal FL4
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Lacustrine, littoral UB3
Lacustrine, littoral UB2
Lacustrine, littoral UB1
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Palustrine UB3
Palustrine UB2
Palustrine UB1
Palustrine FL3
Habitat Associations - 1
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Palustrine FL2
Palustrine FL1
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Riverine, lower perennial UB4
Riverine, lower perennial UB3
Riverine, lower perennial UB2
Riverine, lower perennial UB1
Riverine, lower perennial FL4
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal FL4
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Lacustrine, littoral UB3
Lacustrine, littoral UB2
Lacustrine, littoral UB1
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Palustrine UB3
Palustrine UB2
Palustrine UB1
Palustrine FL3
Palustrine FL2
Palustrine FL1
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Prairie Rivers: Piping plovers nesting on the Missouri, Platte,
Habitat Associations - 2 and Niobrara Rivers utilize sand and gravel bars, beaches, sandflats,
dredge spoil and natural islands, and drained river floodplains in
palustrine, littoral, lacustrine, and lower perennial riverine
habitats. Areas surrounding rivers are pasture, cropland, floodplain
forest, herbaceous rangeland on tall grass prairie and sagebrush
areas. Nesting areas are characterized by dry, barren to sparsely
vegetated sandbars located midstream in wide, open channel beds.
Vegetative cover within nesting areas is less than 20%. Spoil islands
are created by sand and gravel mining operations located adjacent to
the river and by within-stream dredging for pipeline crossings and
water intakes. Threats to these areas stem primarily from water
control projects developed for power companies, irrigation,
navigation, recreation and ranching or farming interests. Raising
water levels, via formation of reservoirs, floods nesting areas.
Permanently lowering water levels (via water withdrawl projects)
promotes vegetation encroachment on nest sites (28,30,35,36,38,47,48).
Reservoir construction is the single most cause of habitat loss on
prairie rivers. Reservoirs inundated nesting areas upstream and
reduced the natural scouring actions of floods downstream. Sporadic
releases from reservoir dams for power production and water demands
downstream often inundate nesting areas during the nesting period
(70). Other significant losses occur from recreation activities
within nesting areas (70).
Prairie sloughs and saline wetlands: Small, permanent to
seasonally flooded, palustrine wetlands are used by breeding birds in
Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and possibly Iowa (28,
30,37,47,49,50). Typically, piping plovers place nests on dry, salt
flats or gravel beaches along the edges of these wetlands (37,51,52,
53). Grassland areas adjacent to nest sites are pasture or rangeland
composed of tall-grass prairie, short-grass prairie, or sagebrush.
Occasionally, birds utilize spoil piles, settling ponds, reclaimed
mining areas, or gravel pits (27,37,45,50,54,55). Drainage or
deepening (for freshening purposes) of prairie wetlands pose a major
threat to nesting habitat (09,27,28,37). Livestock pose a major
threat to plover nesting by trampling wetland shorelines and nests.
Large inland lakes: Current utilization of large U.S. inland
lakes is restricted to Lake of the Woods, MN (56,57), Lake Michigan
(41,58), and Lake Superior (41,59). In these lacustrine areas, piping
plovers nest on open, sand and gravel beaches on islands or the
mainland. Beaches may be adjacent to dunes, and are surrounded by
prairie parkland (Lake of the Woods) or northern hardwood forest
(Great Lakes). Recreational development threatens many of the nesting
areas, as does water level manipulation. Industrial sites in Duluth,
MN harbor provide habitat in the form of spoil islands, yet,
industrial use of the area (i.e., human presence) poses a threat to
nesting birds (59,60).
Atlantic ocean beach areas: During the breeding season, piping
plovers place nests on sandy, gravel and/or cobbled marine beaches
along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to South Carolina (26,28,
30,31,47). Breeding pairs have been reported from South Carolina;
however, no nests have been found there yet (68). Off-shore islands,
with appropriate habitat, are also used. Birds place nests at the
base of dunes or close to the vegetation edge (02,26,33,61,62).
Breeding birds generally feed on territories, but inter-tidal
estuarine beach bars and flats may be used if adjacent to territories.
Post-breeding birds use similar habitat along the south Atlantic coast
of the U.S. (47). Residential, commercial, industrial, and
recreational interests threaten many of these areas.
Gulf of Mexico winter sites: During the winter, piping plovers
utilize beaches, sandflats, and dunes along the Gulf of Mexico coastal
beaches and adjacent off-shore islands. Spoil islands in the
Habitat Associations - 3 Intracoastal Waterway are also used. Stabilization of back sides of
barrier islands (e.g., Padre Island, TX) destroys ephemeral, but
essential, sandflat habitat. Recreational and industrial development
(including gas and oil interests) of beaches causes further decline in
habitat availability and quality (10,63).
Nest sites: Specific parameters for nest sites are described
in the section "N-Biology" field. Much of what appears to be suitable
piping plover habitat is not used by the birds. Other factors (e.g.,
social, food supply, or genetic factors), not directly related to
habitat selection, may be involved.
Impact of habitat deterioration: Threats to piping plover
habitat are outlined in the "N-Reason" field. Currently, numbers of
piping plovers are low enough so that destruction of any part of their
habitat significantly impacts the species. It is critical to keep in
mind that the status of winter and migratory habitats are not well
understood.
Habitat Associations - 4 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Diet: Very little is known about the diet of piping plovers or
their foraging behavior during any phase of the annual cycle. The
species' sensitivity to human disturbance makes it difficult and
unwise to sample food on territories while birds are present. Low
population numbers rule out collection of birds for stomach content
analysis. Cairns (33) was unsuccessful in her attempt to develop an
emetic that would force chicks to regurgitate their food.
Bent (05) reported the stomach contents of 4 piping plovers from
Alabama to contain marine worms, insects (fly larvae and beetles),
crustaceans, molluscs, and other small marine animals (and their
eggs). Similarly, in Nova Scotia, Cairns (33) observed piping plovers
feeding on marine worms averaging 2.5-7.5 cm in length. She suggested
their diet consisted of marine worms, minute worms, and crustaceans.
Whyte (51) carried out invertebrate sampling on piping plover
territories at Big Quill Lake in Saskatchewan, and found the following
families present: Coleoptera: Carabidae (26.9%), Dytiscidae (15.3%);
Hemiptera: Corixidae (19.2%) and Saldidae (2.3%); and Diptera:
Chironomidae (9.5%) and Ephidridae (2.6%). Dytiscid adults and
larvae, corixids, and chironomid larvae were collected in water seeps
1 m from the water's edge. He found ephidrids to be more common
further upland, and collected carabids and dytiscids from the
shoreline to the edge of the grassland cover (Haig has numerous
observations of piping plovers eating grasshoppers and spiders in the
grass near nest sites in Manitoba (03)). His sampling was carried out
in August which may have affected the results, but it is the only
sampling of its kind (as of 1986). Captive birds have done well on a
diet of commercial feed, chopped egg yolks, and mealworms (64).
Foraging behavior: Piping plovers have been observed using two
methods of foraging: 1) foot-trembling, whereby one foot is extended
and shaken on the substrate surface and, 2) run and peck, which
involves the bird taking a few short steps, stopping, and then pecking
at a prey item (03,05,33,51). Cairns (33) reported that young chicks
did not forage via foot-trembling, however, Haig (03) has frequently
observed this behavior in chicks less than 5 days old. A difference
between alkali mudflat and coastal beach foraging substrate may
account for this variation in observations. Nichols (65) briefly
described piping plovers foraging by treading in the water to stir up
invertebrates, but it has not been reported since.
Feeding territories: Whyte (51) classified feeding areas on Big
Quill Lake, as being either a major area consisting of the area from
the shoreline up to 15 m upland, or a minor area which is the area
surrounding the nest. He found that while the percentage of feeding
near the shore varies by sex, age, and stage of breeding season, the
vast majority of feeding takes place within 5 m of the water's edge.
Significant deviation from the trend only occurred at sunset when
parents and broods returned to higher ground (51).
Establishment of feeding terrirories varies with habitat and
stage of the annual cycle. Birds that have just arrived on the
breeding grounds, and post-breeding birds tend to forage on undefended
areas (03,33). During courtship, incubation, and early brood-rearing
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
most piping plovers forage on territories (03,33,51). Haig (10)
observed piping plovers feeding on territories on some Texas beaches
in January 1984, but did not observe establishment of territories on
sandflat feeding areas. Winter studies underway in Alabama may
clarify foraging habits for all of the southeast U.S. wintering range
(66).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Piping plovers establish territories during the breeding season
(i.e., throughout courtship, laying, incubation, and brood care) and
possibly during winter (02,03,10,33,51). During the breeding season,
both members of the pair defend a nesting territory that may or may
not contain a feeding territory (03). Piping plovers in Nova Scotia
had separate nesting and feeding territories (33), while birds in
Saskatchewan had contiguous territories (51). Piping plovers in
Manitoba exhibited both patterns depending on study area (03).
Spacing of territories varies from 1 pair per beach to a semi-colonial
situation where 30 or more pairs place nests less than 25 m apart
(02,03,33,36,37,51,52,56,59).
Home range during the breeding season is usually limited to the
wetland, lakeshore, or section of beach that an individuals' nest is
placed on. In Manitoba, however, birds whose nests were destroyed,
often established territories in a diffrent area prior to renesting.
Males that established new territories generally changed areas while
females generally established new territories in the same general
area. Distances between study sites varied from 3-100 km (11).
Results of an investigation into movements of individual birds
between Dauphin Island, Alabama beaches and spoil islands will provide
better information about home ranges of non-breeding birds (66).
Refer to food habits above for a discussion of feeding territories of
post-breeding birds (66).
PERIODICITY:
Piping plovers are migratory shorebirds that spend approximately
3-4 months on northern U.S. and southern Canadian breeding sites. The
remainder of the year they inhabit Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and
southern U.S. beaches and sandflats (28,30). Daily activities during
the non-breeding period have not been described. During the breeding
season, adults in Manitoba were active from at least an hour prior to
sunrise to at least an hour after sunset. Peak daily activity
(including: feeding, territory defense, and courtship) in Manitoba
occurred within an hour of sunrise and sunset (03). In Nova Scotia,
feeding activity was highest at low or falling tides (33). Courting
males will perform aerial displays as late as 3 a.m. During
incubation, males and females alternate incubation bouts that vary
from 15 minutes - 2 hours. It is not known if one adult remains on
the nest throughout the night (03).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Piping plovers are a migratory species, yet less is known about
their migratory activities than most of their other life history
traits. Band returns indicate birds breeding along the Atlantic coast
move to more southerly Atlantic winter sites (30). Great Lakes and
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
northern Great Plains birds winter along the Gulf of Mexico, yet their
fall and spring migratory pathways are unknown (09,30). Areas that
have been used by migratory piping plovers are briefly discussed in
the "N-Occurrence" field, but none of the areas have been shown to be
major "stop-over" sites (47). Piping plovers may complete their
migration without significant stopping. More research is needed on
this topic.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Prairie Rivers: Piping plovers nesting on the Missouri, Platte,
and Niobrara Rivers utilize sand and gravel bars, beaches, sandflats,
dredge spoil and natural islands, and drained river floodplains in
palustrine, littoral, lacustrine, and lower perennial riverine
habitats. Areas surrounding rivers are pasture, cropland, floodplain
forest, herbaceous rangeland on tall grass prairie and sagebrush
areas. Nesting areas are characterized by dry, barren to sparsely
vegetated sandbars located midstream in wide, open channel beds.
Vegetative cover within nesting areas is less than 20%. Spoil islands
are created by sand and gravel mining operations located adjacent to
the river and by within-stream dredging for pipeline crossings and
water intakes. Threats to these areas stem primarily from water
control projects developed for power companies, irrigation,
navigation, recreation and ranching or farming interests. Raising
water levels, via formation of reservoirs, floods nesting areas.
Permanently lowering water levels (via water withdrawl projects)
promotes vegetation encroachment on nest sites (28,30,35,36,38,47,48).
Reservoir construction is the single most cause of habitat loss on
prairie rivers. Reservoirs inundated nesting areas upstream and
reduced the natural scouring actions of floods downstream. Sporadic
releases from reservoir dams for power production and water demands
downstream often inundate nesting areas during the nesting period
(70). Other significant losses occur from recreation activities
within nesting areas (70).
Prairie sloughs and saline wetlands: Small, permanent to
seasonally flooded, palustrine wetlands are used by breeding birds in
Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and possibly Iowa (28,
30,37,47,49,50). Typically, piping plovers place nests on dry, salt
flats or gravel beaches along the edges of these wetlands (37,51,52,
53). Grassland areas adjacent to nest sites are pasture or rangeland
composed of tall-grass prairie, short-grass prairie, or sagebrush.
Occasionally, birds utilize spoil piles, settling ponds, reclaimed
mining areas, or gravel pits instead of natural habitat (27,37,45,50,
54,55). Drainage or deepening (for freshening purposes) of prairie
wetlands pose a major threat to nesting habitat (09,27,28,37).
Large inland lakes: Current utilization of large U.S. inland
lakes is restricted to Lake of the Woods, MN (56,57), Lake Michigan
(41,58), Lake Superior (41,59), and possibly Lake Ontario. In these
lacustrine areas, piping plovers nest on open, sand and gravel beaches
on islands or the mainland. Beaches may be adjacent to dunes, and are
surrounded by prairie parkland (Lake of the Woods) or northern
hardwood forest (Great Lakes). Recreational development threatens
many of the nesting areas, as does water level manipulation.
Industrial sites in Duluth, MN harbor provide habitat in the form of
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
spoil islands, yet, industrial use of the area poses a threat to
nesting birds (59,60).
Atlantic ocean beach areas: During the breeding season, piping
plovers place nests on sandy, gravel and/or cobbled marine beaches
along the Atlantic coast from Maine to North Carolina (26,28,30,31,
47). Breeding pairs have been reported from South Carolina; however,
no nests have been found yet (68). Off-shore islands, with
appropriate habitat, are also used. Birds place nests at the base of
dunes or close to the vegetation edge (02,26,33,61,62). Breeding
birds generally feed on territories, but intertidal estuarine beach
bars and flats may be used if adjacent to territories. Non-breeding
birds use similar habitat along the south Atlantic coast of the U.S.
(47). Residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational interests
threaten many of these areas.
Gulf of Mexico winter sites: During the winter, piping plovers
utilize beaches, sandflats, and dunes along the Gulf of Mexico coastal
beaches and adjacent off-shore islands. Spoil islands in the
Intercoastal Waterway are also used. Stabilization of back sides of
barrier islands (e.g., Padre Island, TX) destroys ephemeral, but
essential, sandflat habitat. Recreational and industrial development
(including gas and oil interests) of beaches causes further decline in
habitat availability and quality (10,63).
Nest sites: Specific parameters for nest sites are described
below.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Piping plovers perform most courtship displays, including
nest-building, on their nesting territories. Males usually initiate
nest scrape digging on an unvegetated sand or gravel substrate high on
the beach line (03,33). Both males and females perform a ritualized
stone-tossing behavior whereby nest-scrapes are lined with small
pebbles or shell fragments (03,33). Finished nest cups are
approximately 2 cm deep and 6 cm in diameter (03).
Since piping plover habitat is so variable across North America,
it is difficult to characterize specific dimensions for the "ideal"
nest site. Prindiville's (37) general conclusions from North Dakota
are indicative of patterns reported in other studies. She found
beaches used for nest sites were significantly wider than those not
selected. Nesting territories had more gravel, and it was more evenly
distributed, than on unused beaches. Vegetation was scarce and more
clumped on nesting territories. Finally, territories with gravel
substrate were more successful than territories with alkali substrate
(37). Nest-site parameters for specific areas are discussed in
numerous papers: (33,36,37,41,51,52,59,61,67).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Piping plovers exhibit a monogamous mating system, although one
instance of polyandry was observed in Manitoba (27,56). While an
individual only forms one pair bond at a time (extra-bond copulations
were rarely observed in Manitoba), mate-switching between nest
attempts and years occurs frequently (02,11,56). Mate-switching
between years occurs regardless of previous reproductive success (11,
56). In Manitoba, most former mates were present in nesting areas in
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
subsequent years, thus making it possible for pair-bonds to persist
(11).
Males and females are able to breed their first spring after
hatching (11). Wilcox reported piping plovers lived for twelve years
or more, and implied they were still reproductively active at an
advanced age (02). During a single year, adults raise only 1 brood
(02,11,33,56). If nests are destroyed, they will renest up to 3 times
(11). Pairs fledge .3-2.1 chicks per year (02,30,31,33,51,56).
Flemming showed that adults on undisturbed beaches fledged more chicks
than those nesting on beaches with intense recreational activity (34).
PARENTAL CARE:
Piping plovers are a biparental species whose parental activities
vary with location, year, and stage of the breeding season. In the
spring, courtship, including copulation, begins soon after the birds
arrive. Females lay an egg (average dimensions = 32.5 x 24.8 mm (33))
every other day until a 4-egg clutch is complete (02,03,05,33).
Clutch size for an initial nest attempt is usualy four eggs (69).
Copulations cease after the fourth egg is laid (03). Both males and
females incubate clutches for 25-31 days (02,11,33,37,56). In
Manitoba, partial incubation began with the laying of the first egg
(03), while Cairns did not report the onset of incubation until the
third egg was laid (33). Cairns reported equal division of incubation
duties, but males in Manitoba assumed more incubation duties during
laying and just prior to hatch (03,33). If the initial a clutch is
destroyed early in the breeding season, the pair will often renest
in the same vicinity (62,33). One female on Cape Cod was observed
in five nesting attempts laying a total of 18 eggs (69).
The precocial chicks hatch within a half day to a day of each
other, and are able to feed themselves within hours. Brooding duties
are shared by males and females, although females in Manitoba deserted
broods as early as the first week after hatch (11). Broods generally
remain on territories, but may expand their movements as they mature.
Fledging time varies from 21 days in Manitoba and North Dakota (03,
37), to 27 days in Nova Scotia (33), to 30-35 days on Long Island
(02). Males remain with broods until after fledging and have
frequently been seen moving into post-breeding flocks with their
chicks (11).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
In 1985, pair counts for the U.S. population of piping plovers
ranged between 930-1,065. Total species pair counts varied from
1,650 to 2,178 (28,30). There are no comprehensive historic numbers
to compare with these figures, although major sites and regions (i.e.,
the Great Lakes) have suffered significant declines (28,30). Haig's
genetic analysis of populations across North America (also discussed
in the "N-Taxonomy" field) concluded that there was little difference
between major regions, and that local populations appeared to be in
Hardy-Wienberg equilibrium. Lack of heterozygosity occurred for some
populations at some loci, but coefficients of inbreeding were not
significant (11).
At the individual level, Wilcox showed 13% of females and 28% of
males lived to be 5 years or older (02). Twelve of his 288 birds
Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
achieved ages of 8-11 years. Data on adult mortality, population sex
ratio's, and turnover rates are not known. Dispersal patterns are
discussed below.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Piping plovers do not have a direct causal relationship with
other species (excluding common nest predators such as gulls,
raccoons, skunks, etc.), however their relationship with least terns
(Sterna antillarum) is noteworthy. Historically, and currently,
piping plovers nest in least tern colonies at a number of sites (28,
31,36). Both species inhabit river sandbars and sand pits on the
Great Plains and Atlantic coast beaches. Threats to their success are
similar, compounding problems associated with destruction of the
habitat that they both occupy.
In Nova Scotia, piping plovers nested among colonies of arctic
terns (Sterna paradisaea) and common terns (Sterna hirundo) (33).
Similarly, piping plovers at Lake of the Woods, Minnesota are nesting
in the midst of a common tern colony (56,57).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
An important aspect of developing management plans for any
species is knowledge of their dispersal patterns. Breeding site
fidelity ranges from 15% in Nova Scotia (33) to 68 percent
in Manitoba and Minnesota (11,41,56,57). In Manitoba, males return
more frequently than females. Return patterns to specific areas
do not seem influenced by previous reproductive success (11,56). In
Manitoba, adults that did not return to previous territories exhibited
two patterns: If they had chicks hatch the year before, they returned
to the same study site but changed territories; those that experienced
nest failure the year before generally changed areas (11).
Adults have been known to disperse as far as from Lake of the Woods,
MN to northern Lake Winnipeg in consecutive years (11).
Natal philopatry is low for piping plovers, ranging from 4.7
pct. return in New York to 20.2% return in Minnesota (02,11,56). In
Manitoba, males and females return in equal numbers (11). Chick
dispersal is difficult to document, although, a chick from southern
Manitoba was found breeding at Long Point Ontario a year after hatch
(11). Wilcox reported a chick from Penn Yan, NY bred at Long Point
(02). Similarly, Pike observed a Long Point bird at Waugoschance
Point in Michigan (41).
Life History - 6 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Sport Hunting/Fishing
Existing Sport Hunting/Fishing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Boating
Existing Boating
Adverse Hiking/Camping
Existing Hiking/Camping
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Oil Spills
Existing Oil Spills
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Salinity alteration
Existing Salinity alteration
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Strip mining
Existing Strip mining
Adverse Water Level Stabilization
Existing Water Level Stabilization
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Existing Flooding
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Sport Hunting/Fishing
Existing Sport Hunting/Fishing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Boating
Existing Boating
Adverse Hiking/Camping
Existing Hiking/Camping
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Oil Spills
Existing Oil Spills
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Salinity alteration
Existing Salinity alteration
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Strip mining
Existing Strip mining
Adverse Water Level Stabilization
Existing Water Level Stabilization
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Piping plovers are a long-lived species with low annual
reproductive success that utilize dynamic, highly ephemeral habitats
throughout the annual cycle. There are no comprehensive, quantifiable
population estimates for the species prior to 1980 (26), although
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
early 20th century accounts report that shorebird hunting caused the
first known major decline of the species (05). Since then, the
factors discussed below have further contributed to the decline of the
species. The culminating effects of these factors provided impetus
for piping plovers to be declared endangered in Canada (27),
threatened throughout it's U.S. range (except for the Great Lakes
watershed where it is listed as endangered) (28), and placed on the
Audubon Society's Blue List (29).
Habitat alteration and destruction: The enormous loss of sandy
beaches and other littoral habitats due to recreational or commercial
developments, and dune stabilization in the Great Lakes region,
Atlantic coast beaches, and Gulf of Mexico winter sites is responsible
for some decline of the species (05,27,28,30,31,32). In the Great
Lakes, historic sites have also been destroyed by high water levels
eroding beaches (32). Where breeding does occur on Great Lakes and
Atlantic coast sites, success is severely impacted by human
disturbance. Vehicular and foot traffic (including raking of beaches
for trash) destroys chicks and eggs. The mere presence of people on
beaches (i.e., hiking, camping, near-by boaters) inhibits incubation
and other breeding behavior, further decreasing reproductive success
(27,28,33,34,31). Currently, numbers of piping plovers are low enough
that destruction of any part of their habitat significantly impacts
the species. It is critical to keep in mind that the status of winter
and migratory habitats are not well understood.
Damming and channelization of rivers has eliminated sandbar
nesting habitat along hundreds of miles of rivers in the Dakotas,
Iowa, and Nebraska. Untimely water releases from dams along sections
of the Missouri River subject remaining sandbar habitat to alteration
and flooding during the breeding season. The damming and withdrawal
of water for irrigation and other purposes has altered water flows in
rivers (such as the Platte) thus facilitating the establishment of
dense vegetation on formerly productive nest sites (28,35,36,38).
Although some saline wetlands in the northern Great Plains have
been drained or modified, it is difficult to assess the impact of this
activity. Prindiville reports freshening of water on saline wetlands
in central North Dakota has decreased their quality as nesting habitat
(37).
Overutilization by man: As mentioned above, early 20th Century
sport hunting may have severely impacted the survival of piping
plovers (05). Currently, hunting may be a problem in Newfoundland
(39) and the West Indies (40), but it is not evident in the U.S.
Hunting in the Caribbean Region may be for subsistence purposes. As
more research is carried out on the birds, scientists are becoming
increasingly aware of piping plover's sensitivity to human presence,
including the presence of biologists, on their territories (09). In
the future, research activities may have to be more carefully
monitored.
Disease or predation: Disease has not been known to be a problem
for piping plovers. Furthermore, eggs tested for contaminants in
Michigan did not show positive results (although only a few eggs were
tested) and further testing for contaminants should be stressed (41).
Predation, however, has become a problem along Atlantic and Great
Lakes beaches, as well as, saline wetlands in the prairies. Increased
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
urbanization and use of beaches brought an increase in the number of
unleashed pets, unnaturally high densities of gulls (Larus spp.), and
other predators such as skunks and foxes (09,28,42). Since the
1940's, the raccoon has greatly expanded its' range on the northern
Great Plains and has become a common nest predator (37,43). Cattle
trampling of nesting habitat may also affect nest and chick success.
Inadequate regulatory mechanisms: Federal recognition of the
species' status by the U.S. and Canada in 1985 has improved protection
of piping plovers (28,30). Development and implementation of recovery
plans by both countries will assist in assuring protection of
sensitive habitat for the species.
Other natural or manmade factors: Detailed studies of habitat
use by post-breeding piping plovers have not been carried out,
however, preliminary data show that stabilization of barrier island
sandflats may be severely impacting the species' winter habitat. An
oil spill along the Texas coast did kill piping plovers, but the
incident was short-lived (44). Dinsmore reviewed the impact of
surface mining on piping plovers and concluded that there was
potential for habitat destruction as well as enhancement in mining
areas (45).
Future threats: Future threats are similar to current problems,
i.e., increased recreational/commercial development of beaches,
wetland drainage, water level manipulation on rivers, increases in
predators, lack of undisturbed nesting habitat, and stabilization of
winter sites. The impact of agricultural runoff into wetlands,
botulism (46), or other environmental contaminants has not been
investigated, but may prove detrimental in the future.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. Atlantic Coast Piping Plover
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Newton Corner,
MA. 77 pp.
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
A recovery plan is also under development for the Great Lakes/Northern
Great Plains recovery region by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Twin Cites, MN.
On the Atlantic Coast recommended actions for recovery include
habitat protection and the elimination of human disturbance, the
latter being the most important. Piping plovers are nesting and
rearing young at a time when beaches are heavily used by people. The
posting of beaches to eliminate human traffic is vital to recovery.
Public education endeavors are also important to inform people who
unknowingly disrupt plover breeding.
In the Great Lakes region the piping plover is extremely rare and
human disturbance is evident at most sites. The elimination of human
access (including but not limited to the use of off-road vehicles) to
nesting beaches is necessary for recovery.
In the Northern Great Plains region human disturbance is less of
a problem than elsewhere. Loss of riverine habitat continues to be a
threat to the plover. Protection from habitat loss is most
Management Practices - 5 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
effectively accomplished by acquisition, instream flow conservation,
restricting development, and manipulation of discharge from water
control structures on waters where nesting occurs.
Habitat management to maintain early stages of succession (i.e.,
beaches, suitable nesting sites, etc.) may be accomplished by
controlling native and introduced vegetation or creating artificial
habitat. The maintaining of water flow and controlling of water
salinity in riparian and coastal habitats is essential to maintaining
the habitat quality.
Predation may be a threat to the plover in all three regions but
this factor needs further investigation. If warranted the controlling
of wild, domestic, feral, and introduced predators, especially at
nesting sites, may be a desirable recovery task.
Currently, many states on the Atlantic coast are undertaking
public information programs and human use of some plover nesting areas
is being curtailed. In Michigan, where most of the Great Lakes
plovers nest, most public beaches are now fenced.
Management Practices - 6 (DRAFT) - References
Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 National Geographic Society. 1983. Field guide to the birds of
North America. Wash., D.C.
02 Wilcox, L. 1959. A twenty year banding study of the piping
plover. Auk 76:129-152.
03 Haig, S.M. 1981-1986. Unpubl. data based on 6 years of field
studies and over 800 hours of focal pair time budget data
collection. Univ. of North Dakota, Grand Forks.
04 Prater, A.J., J.H. Marchant, and J. Vuorinen. 1977. Guide to the
identification and ageing of Holarctic waders. British Trust for
Ornithology Guide # 17. Maund and Irvine Ltd., Tring, Herts.
05 Bent, A.C. 1929. Life histories of North American shorebirds.
U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 146:236-246.
06 Johnsgard, P.A. 1981. The plovers, sandpipers and snipes of the
World. Univ. of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
07 Graul, W.D. 1973. Possible functions of head and breast markings
in Charadriinae. Wilson Bull. 85:60-70.
08 Moser, R.A. 1942. Should the belted piping plover be recognized
as a valid race? Neb. Bird Rev. 10:31-37.
09 Haig, S.M., and L.W. Oring. 1987. Piping plover. In: 1987
Audubon Wildlife Report. Nat. Aud. Soc., Wash., D.C.
10 Haig, S.M. 1987. Winter distribution and population status of the
piping plover on the Gulf of Mexico. In: Endangered Canadian
prairie species. Symposium proceedings publ. by Can. Wildl. Serv.,
Edmonton, AB.
11 Haig, S.M. 1987. The population biology and life history patterns
of the piping plover. Ph.D diss., Univ. of ND (in prep.).
12 Wilson, A., and C.L. Bonaparte. [n.d.] Piping plover (Charadrius
melodus). In: Am. Ornith. Vol. III. Cassell, Petter and Galpin,
NY.
13 American Ornithologists' Union. 1945. Twentieth supplement to the
checklist of North American birds. Auk 62:436-449.
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Date 14 MAR 96
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25 Haig, S.M. 1986. Computer data base on piping plover skins.
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26 Cairns, W.E., and I.A. McLaren. 1980. Status of the piping plover
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27 Haig, S.M. 1985. The status of the piping plover in Canada.
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28 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Determination of endangered
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29 Tate, J. 1981. The blue list for 1981. Am. Birds 35:3-10.
30 Haig, S.M., and L. W. Oring. 1985. The distribution and status of
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31 Master, L., and T. French. 1984. Notes from the piping plover and
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32 Russell, R. 1983. The piping plover in the Great Lakes
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33 Cairns, W.E. 1977. Breeding biology and behaviour of the piping
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34 Flemming, S. 1984. The status and responses of piping plovers to
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35 Ducey, J. 1981. Breeding of the least tern and piping plover on
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36 Faanes, C. 1983. Aspects of the nesting ecology of least terns
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37 Prindiville, E.M. 1986. Habitat selection and productivity of
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38 North, M.R. 1986. Piping plover nesting success on Mallard
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39 Diechmann, H., and R. Burrows. 1983. Importance of the northeast
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40 Price, I. 1984. Pers. comm. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa,
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41 Pike, E. 1985. The piping plover at Waugoschance Point. Jack Pine
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42 Drury, W.H., and J.A. Kadlec. 1974. The current status of the
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43 Sidle, J., and P. Arnold. 1982. Nesting of the American avocet in
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44 Amos, T. 1984. Pers. comm. Univ. of TX Marine Sci. Inst., Port
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45 Dinsmore, J.J. 1983. Piping plover (Charadrius melodus). In:
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46 Haig, S.M. 1986. Ducks unlimited Wood River Delta/Old Wives Lake
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47 Haig, S.M. 1986. Piping plover species distribution workbook for
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48 Lock, R. 1986. Pers. comm. NE Fish and Game, Lincoln.
49 Carlson, C.M., and P.D. Skaar. 1976. Piping plovers in Montana.
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50 Wilson, B.L., L. Padelford, and B. Padelford. 1983. Piping plover
nests in Pottawatomie Co. Iowa Bird Life 53:69-70.
51 Whyte, A.J. 1985. Breeding ecology of the piping plover
(Charadrius melodus) in central Saskatchewan. MS thesis,
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52 Weseloh, D.V., and L.M. Weseloh. 1983. Numbers and nest site
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53 Colwell, M.A. 1986. Shorebird management plan for Last Mountain
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54 Switzer, F.A. 1979. Piping plovers use man-made habitat. Blue
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55 Wollenberg, J. and E. Bauman. 1984. Coal Creek Study. Unpubl.
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56 Wiens, T.P. 1986. Nest-site tenacity and mate retention in the
piping plover. MS thesis, Univ. of MN, Duluth.
57 Haig, S.M., and L.W. Oring. 1986. 1986 status and breeding
summary for piping plovers at Lake of the Woods, MN. Unpubl. rept.
to MN Dept. of Nat. Res. Twin Cities, MN.
58 Lambert, A., and B. Ratcliff. 1981. Present status of the piping
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59 Niemi, G.J., and T.E. Davis. 1979. Notes on the nesting ecology
of the piping plover. The Loon 51:74-79.
60 Metropolitan Interstate Committee. 1984. St. Louis River Estuary
colonial bird program-1984. Unpubl. rept. to MN Dept. of Nat. Res.
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61 Galli, A.E. 1983. Population parameters and habitat
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62 Wilcox, L. 1939. Notes on the life history of the piping plover.
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63 Chapman, B.R. 1984. Seasonal abundance and habitat use patterns
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64 Quinn, J., and R. Walden. 1966. Notes on the incubation and
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Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
rearing of the piping plover (Aegialitis meloda). Avicult. Mag.
72:145-146.
65 Nichols, J.T. 1941. On piping plover feeding. Proc. of the
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66 Baldassarre, G., and C. Johnson. 1985. Pers. comm. Auburn Univ.,
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68 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Office files. U.S Fish and
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69 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Atlantic Coast Piping
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70 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Biological files. U.S.
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Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
14 Carlson, C.M., and P.D. Skaar. 1976. Piping plovers in Montana.
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20 Gray, D. 1985. Pers. comm. Bureau of Reclamation, Bismarck, ND.
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24 Lambeth, D.O., M.A. Berger, and R.L. Nellermoe. 1986. Nesting
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25 Jobman, W. 1983. Pers. comm. USFWS, Pierre, SD.
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40 Niemi, G.J., and T.E. Davis. 1979. Notes on the nesting ecology
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41 Metropolitan Interstate Committee. 1984. St. Louis River Estuary
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Species PLOVER, PIPING
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Date 14 MAR 96
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42 Matteson, S. 1981. Wisconsin recovery plan for piping plovers.
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51 McIvor, L. 1986. Pers. comm. Univ. of MA, Amherst.
52 Lima, S. 1986. Pers. comm. Univ. of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
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54 Tiller, D. 1983. Pers. comm. Ninigret NWR, Charlestown, RI.
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72 Boyd, R. 1983. Pers. comm. Baker Univ., Baldwin City, KS.
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Species PLOVER, PIPING
Species Id ESIS103002
Date 14 MAR 96
74 Hansen, K. 1983. Pers. comm. Kirwin NWR, Kirwin, KS.
75 Darling, C. 1983. Pers. comm. Quivera NWR, Stafford, KS.
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Date 14 MAR 96
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