(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - TERN, LEAST

OTHER COMMON NAMES - TERN, LEAST;TERN, LEAST, INTERIOR;TERN, LEAST, AMERICAN;TERN, LEAST, NEW WORLD;TERN, LEAST, INTERIOR POPULATION OF THE;TERN, LITTLE;TERN, LITTLE, NEW WORLD;TERN, MINUTE;SANDPETER;STRIKER and LITTLE

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Birds

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - CHARADRIIFORMES,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - LARIDAE,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - STERNA,

SPECIES AND SSP - ANTILLARUM,

SCIENTIFIC NAME - STERNA ANTILLARUM

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES -

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Least Tern

Sterna antillarum (Lesson, 1847)

KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird

PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Charadriiformes FAMILY: Laridae

Morphological Description: Least terns are the smallest of the
American terns measuring 21.6 to 24.1 cm long with a wingspan of about
51 cm. The sexes are identical and have a black-capped crown, white
forehead, grayish back and dorsal wing surfaces, white belly, orange
legs, and a black-tipped yellow bill (55,43). The three American
subspecies are virtually indistinguishable morphologically and are
primarily distinquished by the separation of their breeding ranges
(08). One study (68) concluded that there was no genetic differences
between S. a. athalassos and S. a. antillarum. Juveniles vary from
adults in having darker plumage, bill, and dark eye stripes on their
white head (43). Boyd (08) has developed four criteria for use in
distinguishing the two sexes. These include: 1) Wing chord length
less than 171 mm is usually female, while greater than 174 mm is
usually male; 2) Male's feet color is always brighter than its mate.
Male feet are bright orange while female feet are bright to pale
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

yellow, sometimes even grey; 3) Male's bill is larger than the
females. Female bill depth at its widest point is 4.5 to 5.5 mm,
whereas the male's is always 6.0 mm or greater; 4) Male's bill is
orange to bright yellow, whereas the female's bill is light to dull
yellow, or straw-colored.

Taxonomy. The interior least tern (S. antillarum athalassos) is
classified as follows:
Order Charadriiformes (shorebirds), Family Laridae (gulls and
terns), and genus Sterna (terns).
The name Sterna antillarum is credited to Lesson (1847) (01,02)
who first described the American least tern as Sternula melanorhynchus
from a juvenile specimen mistaken for an adult form from the West
Indies (66). This separates it from the European little tern,
S. albifrons. More recently the New World least tern was renamed
S. albifrons and considered as a separate species of the European
little tern (11). As a result of recent studies on vocalizations and
other behaviors, Old World and New World least/little terns are now
considered as separate species (30) and the least tern species name
has returned to Sterna antillarum (02). Like many other species, the
taxonomy of the least tern and its subspecies has been confusing.
Some authors contend the California and eastern subspecies are really
the same (11,30).
The following three subspecies (S. a. antillarum, S. a.
athalassos, and S. a. browni) are virtually indistinguishable, but
have separate breeding ranges. The eastern least tern (S. a.
antillarum) breeds along the eastern coast of the U.S., the Gulf
coast, and the Caribbean. The California least tern (S. a. browni)
breeds along the western coast of California, Baja California, and
Mexico. The interior subspecies (S. a. athalassos) breeds throughout
the Mississippi drainage basin of the midwest (01,02). There appears
to be some overlap in the breeding range of the eastern and interior
subspecies in Kansas and Texas (09,32,51,52). The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service has listed the interior population of the least tern
(Sterna antillarum) (43,44), and the California least tern (Sterna
antillarum browni) as endangered.
The interior subspecies name, athalassos, is credited to Burleigh
and Lowrey (01). Pictures of least tern adults, chicks, and eggs can
be found in: Bent, 1922 (05), Paige, 1968 (37), Schulenberg, et al.
(42), and numerous field guides. Scientific names and synonyms
associated with the least tern (Sterna antillarum) and specifically
the interior population of the least tern (Sterna antillarum
athalassos) include: Sterna albifrons, Sterna argentea, Sterna
frenata (67), Sterna minuta americana (67), Sterna superciliaris,
Sternula melanorhynchus (66,67), Sternula antillarum, Sterna albifrons
athalassos, and Sterna superciliaris antillarum. Several synonyms
mentioned that were in use before Harteret revised the taxonomy in
1921 were listed by him (67). Common names associated with the least
tern and specifically the interior population of the least tern
include: Little tern (including New World little tern), minute tern,
little striker, sandpeter, and the interior least tern (including New
World or American least tern).
Thompson (52) suggests that collections of the three subspecies
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

could be examined morphometrically using multivariate techniques to
determine subspecies differences, or electrophoreses, karyotyping, and
other DNA techniques could be used. However, none of these techniques
would be useful for field identification. Specimens of the three
American subspecies can be found in collections at Louisiana State
University, University of Kansas, Florida State University, U.S.
National Museum, American Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles
County Museum, The Field Museum (Chicago), the Cleveland Museum, and
many more. In addition, the European little tern can be found at the
British Museum (Natural History) (30,52).

Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

STATUS

Coded Status
Arkansas; Federal Endangered
Arkansas; State Recognized

Kentucky; Federal Endangered
Kentucky; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Endangered
Louisiana; State Recognized

Mississippi; Federal Endangered
Mississippi; State Recognized

South Carolina; State Listed

Tennessee; Federal Endangered
Tennessee; State Recognized

E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Non-consumptive recreational

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The least tern (Sterna antillarum) has been designated an
Endangered species in portions of its range pursuant to the Endangered
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884;
16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status in the
States of AR, CO, IA, IL, IN, KS, KY, LA (Mississippi River and its
tributaries North of Baton Rouge), MS, MO, MT, NE, NM, ND, OK, SD, TN,
and TX (except within 50 miles of the coast). Critical Habitat has
not been designated for this species nor do any special rules apply at
this time.
This species is also protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13).

RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:

USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
BIA -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Bureau of Indian Affairs
lands.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
USFS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Forest Service lands. The
Forest Service is responsible for integrating
management, protection, and conservation of Federally
listed species into the Forest Planning process
(36 CFR 219.19 and 219.20). Management practices that
would cause detrimental changes in water temperature
or composition, water course blockage, or sediment
deposits within 100 feet of the edges of perennial
streams, lakes or other bodies of water are prohibited
(36 CFR 219.27(e)).

All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.

STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:

DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered; (NM) Endangered (Group 2); (TX)
Endangered and Migratory Game Bird
(shorebirds of all types).
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(IL) Dept. of Conserv./ 17 IL Admin. Code 1010.30, Feb. 1982;
(IA) Div. of Fish and Game/ IA Admin. Code 290-19.1, Sept. 1977;
(MO) Dept. of Conserv./ MO Rev. Stat. 252.240, 3 Wildl. Code of
MO 10-4.111, Eff. Jan. 1, 1983;
(NJ) Dept. of Environ. Protetion, Div. of Fish, Game and Wildl./
NJ Admin. Code 7:25-11.2, Eff. Mar. 29, 1979;
(NM) Dept. of Game and Fish/ NM Reg. No. 624, Eff. July 22, 1983;
NM Stat. Annot. 17-2-1 to 17-2-7;
(NY) Dept. of Environ. Conserv./ 6 NY Code, Rules and Regs. 182.1
to 182.5, Apr. 30, 1983, Environ. Conserv. Law 11-0535;
(SD) Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks/ Admin. Rules of SD 41:10:02,
Eff. Mar. 16, 1978 (Sterna albifrons athalassos);
(TX) Parks and Wildl. Dept./ 31 TX Admin. Code Sec. 57.133
(127.30.09.003), July 1977 (Sterna albifrons athalassos);
Vernon TX Codes Annot., Parks and Wildl. Code 63.001,
64.001, and 66.119.

DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered, also (IN) Non-game
Migratory Bird and (CO) Non-game Bird.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AR) Game and Fish Comm./ AR Stat., Sec. 47-101, 47-117, 47-118,
and 47-119;
(CO) Div. of Wildl./ CO Rev. Stat., Sec. 33-8-103(4); and
33-8-104, 2 Code of CO Regs. 406-6 No. 707 and No. 1000,
1000b (Dec. 1982), and 1001;
(IN) Div. of Fish and Wildl./ IN Stat. Annot., Sec. 14-2-8.5-1
and 14-2-2-1(n)(1)-(3), 310 IN Admin. Code 3-3-6;
(KY) Dept. of Fish and Wildl. Res./ KY Rev. Stat. 150.183, 301 KY
Admin. Reg. 3:061;
(LA) Wildl. and Fish. Comm./ LA Stat. Annot. 56:1901 to 56:1907;
(MS) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ MS Publ. Notice No. 2156, Eff.
Sept. 1, 1981; MS Code Annot. 49-5-101 to 49-5-119;
(MT) MT Dept. of Fish, Wildl., and Parks/ MT Code Annot. 87-5-101
to 112, MT Admin. Register 12.5.201;
(ND) Game and Fish Dept./ ND Century Code 20.1-10-02 and
20.1-02-05;
(OK) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ 29 OK Stat. Annot., Sec. 2-109,
2-135, 7-501, 7-502, 7-504, and 7-602;
(TN) Wildl. Res. Ag./ TN Wildl. Procedures No. 75-15, as amended,
Dec. 8, 1978; TN Code Annot. 70-8-101 to 70-8-112.

Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

DESIGNATED STATUS: Threatened; (SC) Non-game Threatened.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(KS) Fish and Game Comm./ KS Admin. Regs. 23-17-1, May 1980;
(NE) Game and Parks Comm./ NE Admin. Rules and Regs., Vol. 13,
6-(4) 1984, Rev. Stat. of NE, Sec. 37-430 to 438;
(SC) Wildl. and Marine Res. Dept./ Regs. 123-150.2 to 123-160
(June 27, 1980), Code of Laws of SC 50-15-10 to 50-15-90.

Note: The States of IA, IL, KS, ME, NJ, NY, and SC list the
least tern as Sterna albifrons.

INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
None.

ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The least tern is a rare and attractive shorebird, unknown to
most beachgoers. The species has a nonconsumptive recreational value
to bird watchers and there is no known negative value to man.

82/12/30:47 FR 58454/58460 - Notice of Review
84/05/29:49 FR 22444/22447 - Proposed Rule
84/22/08:49 FR 33296/ - Notice of Public Hearing
85/28/05:50 FR 21784/21792 - Final Rule; Listing as Endangered

Status - 4 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL

LAND USE -
Transportation, communications, and Util
Cropland and Pasture
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
Dry Salt Flats
Beaches
Transitional Areas

NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES

NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC

Riverine, intermittent RS
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, intermittent FL5
Riverine, intermittent FL3
Riverine, intermittent FL2
Riverine, intermittent FL1
Riverine, intermittent BB2
Riverine, intermittent BB1
Riverine, upper perennial RS
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Riverine, upper perennial FL5
Riverine, upper perennial FL3
Riverine, upper perennial FL2
Riverine, upper perennial FL1
Riverine, upper perennial BB2
Riverine, upper perennial BB1
Riverine, lower perennial RS
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, lower perennial FL5
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, tidal RS
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal FL5
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Lacustrine, littoral RS
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral FL5
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Habitat Associations - 1
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Palustrine SS6
Estuarine, intertidal RS
Estuarine, intertidal FL5
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Marine, intertidal RS
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, subtidal OW0
Riverine, intermittent RS
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, intermittent FL5
Riverine, intermittent FL3
Riverine, intermittent FL2
Riverine, intermittent FL1
Riverine, intermittent BB2
Riverine, intermittent BB1
Riverine, upper perennial RS
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Riverine, upper perennial FL5
Riverine, upper perennial FL3
Riverine, upper perennial FL2
Riverine, upper perennial FL1
Riverine, upper perennial BB2
Riverine, upper perennial BB1
Riverine, lower perennial RS
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, lower perennial FL5
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, tidal RS
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal FL5
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Lacustrine, littoral RS
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral FL5
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Habitat Associations - 2
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Palustrine SS6
Estuarine, intertidal RS
Estuarine, intertidal FL5
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Marine, intertidal RS
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, subtidal OW0

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Least terns (Sterna antillarum) usually breed on open expanses
of sand or small-pebble beaches, and clay, alkali or mud flats along
shorelines (of lakes, reserviors, bays and esturaties), riverbanks,
sandbars, and islands. Terns choose sites that are well-drained and
well back from the water line, usually near a small ridge or piece of
driftwood (i.e., downed log) (03,05,18,22,16,53,69). The interior
subspecies (S. a. athalassos) usually nests on beaches totally devoid
of vegetation, but has been found on sites with an average of 11.4 to
30.4 percent vegetative cover (40,03,16,19,22,45). This sparse
vegetation was composed of grasses, shrubs, and trees that ranged from
38.7 to 94.5 cm in height (16,19,40,45,61). These vegetative
characteristics are similar to characteristics associated with the
eastern subspecies (S. a. antillarum) (23). Vegetation, when present,
is usually located well away from the colony (03,22,40,45), however,
bugseed (Corisperum hypssopifolium), cottonwood (Populus deltoides),
and sandbar willow (Salix interior) saplings are commonly found within
colonies in North Dakota (16,19,61). Thompson (51) notes that
vegetation associated with coastal least terns in Texas is usually
scattered and clumped. He believes these growth forms provide some
protective cover for young without substantially obscuring the site,
either vertically or horizontally. Throughout the species range in
the interior of the U.S. agriculture (pasture) is quite prevelant.

Roosting. California least terns (S. a. browni) use night roosting
sites that consist of a wide open stretch of sandy beach which, for
several weeks before nesting, are located away from areas used for
nesting (04,31). This is considered an anti-predator behavior.

Migration. Migration habitat is not specifically mentioned in the
literature. However, they migrate north along major river systems of
the Mississippi River Valley in the spring and south along these same
rivers in the fall. It is likely they use similar types of habitat as
discussed in the sections on nesting and foraging habitat.

Wintering. Wintering habitat is also poorly known. However, least
terns of unknown subspecies winter along the eastern and western
Habitat Associations - 3 coasts of Central America and the northern and eastern coasts of South
America. These terns likely use the same types of habitat as
previously discussed (22,44).

Foraging. Interior least terns feed almost entirely on small fish and
require shallow water areas with an abundant fish population near the
nesting area (03,05,22,63). In North Carolina, 61 of the colonies
observed were within 250 meters of a large expanse of shallow water
(23).

As suitable natural sites have become scarce this bird has begun to
use artificial sites such as dredge islands, sandpits, old parking
lots (barren:tansitional areas), and road shoulders (36,48,50,61,62).
Site tenacity in the literature is described as varying from weak to
strong (09,10,33). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has developed a
Habitat Suitability Index Model for the least tern (64).

Habitat Associations - 4 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Fish
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Fish

Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Downed logs
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Downed logs

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

LIFE HISTORY

FOOD HABITS:
Least terns (Sterna antillarum) feed almost entirely on small
fish that swim near the surface, primarily minnows (Cyprinidae),
throughout their entire life (03,05,22,63). Fundulus, Notropis,
Campostoma, Pimephales, Gambusia, and Lepomis are important food
genera in Kansas (41). The stomach contents of 49 least terns
collected in NJ, FL, and LA consisted of 43.1% silver anchovy
(Engraulis eurystole), 6.8% menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), 6.3 pct.
mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus), 5.0% Crustacea, 1.1% silversides
(Menidia sp.), and 37.7% unidentified items (65 in 64). Other
species dropped or discarded by adults in nesting colonies which
appear to correlate with those consumed include: Gulf menhaden
(Brevoortia patronus) and bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli) in
Mississippi; emerald sleeper (Erotelis smaragolus) and rough
silverside (Membras martinica) in Texas (in addition to the two
species in Mississippi); sand lance (Ammodytes sp.), herring (Clupea
sp.), and hake (Urophycis sp.) in Massachusetts; river shiner
(Notropus blennius) on lower Ohio River; and plains killifish
(Fundulus kansae) in Kansas. In an Oklahoma study (69), the most
abundant prey available were plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinus) and
sand shiners (Notropis stramineus) in streams traversing salt flats;
and plains minnows (Hybognathus placitus), sand shiners, plains
killifish, and Mississippi silversides (Menidia audens) in stream
reaches off of salt flats, at river mouths, and at the lake edges
(69). Other subspecies and the related European little tern (Sterna
albifrons) eat mollusks, crustacea, small fish, sand eels (Ammodytes
sp.), and annelids (24,53,57,59) along the coasts. However, all
subspecies eat primarily fish and size appears to be a more important
factor in determining the diet rather than a preference for particular
prey species (35). Least terns in Kansas ate fish between 2.5 and 7.5
cm long (41). Least terns in North Carolina ate fish between 5 and 8
cm long and fed newly-hatched chicks fish between 2 and 4 cm long
(35). California least terns have been observed feeding on fish
between 4 and 9 cm long (29). The method of hunting consists of
hovering and diving from a height of a few feet (22) to 10 m (30 feet)
(35). Least terns also skim the water for surface prey (05).

HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
All subspecies of least terns are colonial and nest and migrate
in variable-sized groups. Unlike other species of terns, least tern
nests within a given colony are well-scattered, often as far as 50
yards apart (22,46). Because least tern nests are usually wide
spaced, territorial disputes are few. Only the area within a few
feet of the nest is defended (22). Once nest defense behavior is
initiated, the entire colony may take part in mobbing an invading
predator (22,29).

PERIODICITY:
Interior least terns appear to be active only during the day.
No literature could be found to demonstrate any nocturnal activity.

Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Interior least terns migrate north in small, loose flocks in the
spring along the major river systems of the Mississippi River Valley.
In the central Mississippi drainage they usually arrive at the
breeding grounds from mid-May (in Tennessee) to late-May (in
Illinois), although terns occassionally arrive in late April. Arrival
at western and northern portions of its range usually occurs from late
April to early June (22).
After the breeding season, terns wander extensively in small
flocks or as individuals. Later they gather in small flocks and
migrate south along the same rivers as during the spring migration.
The start of fall migration varies according to the time of completion
of nesting (22). Departure from Sioux City, Iowa, has been reported
prior to 1 September, but usually occurs in early September (46).
Departure from colonies in southern Illinois have been recorded on
30 August (22).

COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Least terns usually breed on open expanses of sand or
small-pebble beaches along shorelines, riverbanks, sandbars, and
islands. Terns choose sites that are well-drained and well back from
the water line, usually near a small ridge or piece of driftwood
(i.e., downed log) (03,05,18,22,16,53). The interior subspecies
(S. a. athalassos) usually nests on beaches totally devoid of
vegetation, but has been found on sites with an average of 11.4 to
30.4% vegetative cover (40,03,16,19,22,45). This sparse vegetation
was composed of grasses, shrubs, and trees and ranged from 38.7 to
94.5 cm in height (16,19,40,45,61). These vegetative characteristics
are similar to characteristics associated with the eastern subspecies
(S. a. antillarum) (23). Vegetation, when present, is usually located
well away from the colony (03,22,40,45), however, bugseed (Corisperum
hypssopifolium), cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and sandbar willow
(Salix interior) are commonly found within colonies in North Dakota
(16,19,61). Thompson (51) notes that vegetation associated with
coastal least terns in Texas is usually scattered and clumped. He
feels these growth forms provided some protective cover for young
without substantially obscuring the site, either vertically or
horizontally. Sparse vegetation occurs at nest sites (after hatching
of chicks) throughout the species' range and serves to protect chicks.

Roosting. California least terns use night roosting sites that
consist of a wide open stretch of sandy beach which, for several weeks
before nesting, are located away from areas used for nesting (04,31).
This is considered an anti-predator behavior.

Migration. Migration habitat is not specifically mentioned in the
literature. However, interior least terns migrate north along major
river systems of the Mississippi River valley in the spring and south
along these same rivers in the fall. It is likely they use similar
types of habitat as are discussed in sections on nesting and foraging
habitat.

Wintering. Wintering habitat is also poorly known. However, least
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

terns of unknown subspecies winter along the eastern and western
coasts of Central America and the northern and eastern coasts of South
America. These terns likely use the same types of habitat as
previously discussed (22,44).

Foraging. Interior least terns feed almost entirely on small fish and
require shallow water areas with an abundant fish population near the
nesting area (03,05,22,63). In North Carolina 61 of the colonies
observed were within 250 meters of a large expanse of shallow water
(23).

REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Interior least terns require an open expanse of sand/stone/pebble
beach, sandbar, clay, alkali flats or mudflat area for breeding.
Nests are constructed by scraping a depression into the substrate
(called "scrape-making"). The scrape is usually lined with small
pebbles, shell fragments, or similar materials. Nests are usually
located next to driftwood or small, stony ridges, the only type of
protective cover that the species appears to require at the onset of
breeding. However, nests in some areas occur more often in the open
(69). Nest sites are well-drained and well back from the water line.
Similar areas are used for courtship, though courtship activities may
occur on a separate site than where the colony forms (03,05,18,22,46,
53). In addition, sparse vegetation and other limited forms of cover
appear to be particularly important as protection from weather
extremes and predators of young chicks (51). As suitable natural
sites become scarce this bird has begun to use artificial sites such
as dredge islands, sandpits, old parking lots, and road shoulders (36,
48,50,61,62). Site tenacity in the literature is described as varying
from weak to strong (09,10,33).

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Breeding behavior begins as soon as the birds arrive at the
breeding grounds in the spring, provided the site is not flooded (22,
53). Courtship behavior includes several distinct phases. These
include: Aerial glides (or fish flights), posturing, parading,
copulation, and nest building. See Ducey, 1981 (18), Hardy, 1957
(22), and Wolk, 1974 (60) for more details of these behaviors. It
appears that interior least terns form a pair bond only for the length
of the breeding season.
Interior least terns lay 1 to 4 (usually 2 or 3) pale to olive
buff eggs speckled or streaked with dark purplish-brown, chocolate, or
blue-grey coloration (18,22,57). Partial incubation begins with the
laying of the first egg, consequently, young would hatch 1-2 days
apart. Both parents take part in incubation, but the female
contributes more. Incubation normally varies from 20 to 25 days, but
extremes ranging from 17 to 28 days have been recorded (03,15,18,22,
57).

PARENTAL CARE:
The young are precocial. They are brooded for only about two
days after hatching. Sheltering/brooding still occurs in adverse
weather after chicks start wandering. After this time they are strong
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

enough to wander from the nest on their own. Chicks are able to fly
about 20 days after hatching, but do not become competent fishers
(foragers) until after the fall migration from the breeding grounds.
Therefore, they still depend on some parental feeding even after they
have become strong fliers (22,25,53).

POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Nesting success for interior least tern colonies has been
reported as ranging between 3.0 to 78.6% (03,08,21,22,42). High water
can prevent or disrupt nesting (07,17,22,58) and can be a major cause
of nesting failure if the colony is flooded between the time the eggs
are laid and the young fledge (21). Interior least terns appear to
have adapted to temporary, spring-time flooding of breeding areas by
delaying breeding until the water receeds (18,20,22). Thus, breeding
can occur very late into summer. If the water does not receed,
breeding may not be attempted at all (22). Least terns may also
renest if the first clutch is lost to flooding, predation, or other
disturbances (08).
Extreme summer heat on open beach and the resulting body
dehydration and drying out of the food source can decrease chick
survival (07,22,27). Predation also affects least tern populations.
High pre-fledgling mortality appears to be offset by low
mortality as adults. Two banded interior least terns from a study in
Kansas are known to be six years old (08). A ten year old least tern
was found in Georgia (53) and five banded California least terns were
recovered and estimated to be between five and fifteen years old.
Three of these were thirteen years or older (28). The oldest recorded
least tern was in Massachusetts at twenty-one years of age (12).

SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
In certain places interior least terns nest with piping plovers
(Charadrius melodus) and snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) (19,
22). These species have similar nesting habitat requirements and
thus, can compete for nesting areas. Predation can have serious
impacts on nesting success (21). Least terns have been preyed upon
by coyotes (Canis latrans), domestic cats and dogs, sparrow hawks
(Falco sparverius), Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), gulls (Larus
spp.), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), laughing gulls (Larus
atricilla), crows (Corvus spp.), foxes (Vulpes sp.), mink (Mustela
vison), raccoons (Procyon lotor), American badgers (Taxidea taxus),
and possibly cattle egrets (Bulbuleus ibis) (05,10,13,34,37,49,53,69).
Interior least terns rely on abundant populations of small fish,
primarily minnows (Cyprinidae), near nesting areas and during
migration. Good quality foraging areas are often a limiting factor,
especially in selecting sites for breeding colonies. Pollution and
its effect on water quality and aquatic habitat can negatively impact
small fish populations and thus, affect least tern populations (03,05,
22,57,63). Small fish of the genera Fundulus, Notropis, Campostoma,
Pimephales, Gambusia, and Lepomis are known to be important prey
species for this tern (41).

OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
No additonal life history descriptors for the least tern can be
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

included at this time.

Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Boating
Existing Boating
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Water Level Stabilization
Existing Water Level Stabilization
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Maintaining Early Stages of Succession
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vegetation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Boating
Existing Boating
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Water Level Stabilization
Existing Water Level Stabilization
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Existing Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The past and present reasons for declining interior least tern
populations includes major losses and alterations of habitat.
Shoreline, bank, and channel alterations from the construction of
locks, dams, dikes, levees, and reservoirs has altered the natural
forces which were responsible for building, periodically scouring, and
destroying islands and sandbars. As a result, many sandbar/islands
are permanently underwater (or eroded away) while others are no longer
periodically flooded, a force necessary to scour off and retard
encroaching vegetation. If vegetative succession occurs unchecked, a
sandbar/island soon becomes unsuitable for nesting (22,18,43). Water
control projects and irrigation could create no flow condtions that
do not have to be total or at the time the terns are present to reduce
fish populations.
Habitat is also being lost to increasing development (both rural
and agricultural), recreational uses (such as boating and off-road
vehicles), and natural erosion (05,26,14,18). Predation of chicks,
human and domestic pet disturbances or harassment, trampling by
grazing cattle, and flooding during the nesting season are other
factors which have contributed to nesting failures (05,21,14,18,26).
Predation can have serious impacts on nesting success (21). Least
terns have been preyed upon by coyotes (Canis latrans), domestic cats
and dogs, sparrow hawks (Falco sparverius), Norway rats (Rattus
norvegicus), gulls (Larus spp.), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo
lineatus), laughing gulls (Larus atricilla), crows (Corvus spp.),
foxes (Vulpes sp.), mink (Mustela vison), and raccoons (Procyon lotor)
(05,10,13,34,37,49,53). All of these reasons will continue to affect
least tern populations in the future.
In addition, pollution (from all sources including pesticides or
herbicides) and its affect on water quality, aquatic habitat, and
small fish populations (the terns main food source) can limit the
amount of suitable foraging habitat available to these birds (57).
Good quality foraging areas are often a limiting factor, especially
when selecting for breeding sites. Pollution and its effect on water
quality and aquatic habitat can negatively impact small fish
populations and thus, affect least tern populations (03,05,22,57,63).

UNAPPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Recovery Plan for the Interior
Population of the Least Tern. Agency Draft. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Twin Cities, MN.

Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

Recovery tasks for the interior population of the least tern are
expected to include: The management of river flows and wise timing
of discharges so as not to flood tern nests and at the same time
"scour" the habitat to maintain sandbars and spoil islands at an early
successional stage. Tern nesting habitat (i.e., sandbars) is often
flooded during the breeding season. Untimely discharges inundate
nesting areas, limiting recruitment. The encroachment of vegetation
has eliminated much tern habitat. Rivers and associated wetlands
need to be managed to allow the continued presence of barren to
sparsely vegetated sandbars.
In areas where spoil islands or natural sandbars have been
inundated with vegetation (either exotics or natural) it may be
necessary to initially control or remove the vegetation to create
suitable nesting habitat for terns. In some cases the creation of
spoil islands consisting of sand or small pebbles may be desirable to
increase the number and/or quality of suitable nesting sites.
In some areas human disturbance and predation by wildlife can
become or is becoming a limiting factor. Predation can have serious
impacts on nesting success (21). Least terns have been preyed upon by
coyotes (Canis latrans), domestic cats and dogs, sparrow hawks (Falco
sparverius), Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), gulls (Larus spp.),
red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), laughing gulls (Larus
atricilla), crows (Corvus spp.), foxes (Vulpes sp.), mink (Mustela
vison), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) (05,10,13,34,37,49,53). All of
these reasons will continue to affect least tern populations in the
future. The reduction of human disturbance and controlling of
predation may be warranted at certain sites. Grazing cattle have also
been known to distrub nesting and nesting sites. Temporary fencing of
islands or other tern habitat to prevent livestock intrusion may also
be warranted at some sites.

Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

References

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35 Kleen, V. 1981. Seasonal report no. 31, 1981 fall migration.
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36 Kleen, V. 1982. Seasonal report no. 35, 1982 fall migration.
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39 Marlatt, S. 1984. History and management recommendations for the
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Species TERN, LEAST
Species Id ESIS103003
Date 14 MAR 96

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Date 14 MAR 96

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References - 7