(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI

OTHER COMMON NAMES - CRANE, SANDHILL and MISSISSIPPI

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Birds

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - GRUIFORMES,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - GRUIDAE,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - GRUS,

SPECIES AND SSP - CANADENSIS, PULLA

SCIENTIFIC NAME - GRUS CANADENSIS PULLA

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES -

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Mississippi Sandhill Crane

Grus canadensis pulla (Aldrich, 1972)

KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird

PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Gruiformes FAMILY: Gruidae

Tall, stately birds with long legs and heavy bodies. Similar in
size to the Florida sandhill crane, Grus canadensis pratensis, but
colored portions of plumage much darker throughout. From the greater
sandhill crane, Grus canadensis tabida, it differs in smaller size
(except tarsus), and darker color. From the lesser sandhill crane,
Grus canadensis canadensis, it differs in larger size in all
dimensions, and darker color. From the Canadian sandhill crane, Grus
canadensis rowani, it can be distinguished by longer tarsi and darker
color. Measurements - (8 live adult birds hatched from Mississippi,
taken eggs, sex undetermined): wing (chord), 470-493 mm; bill (from
posterior end of nostril), 82-91 mm; tarsus, 216-258 mm. Eggs - light
buffy background with splotches of reddish brown and lavender,
particularly around the large end. Average measurements of 16 eggs
was 95.9 mm (89-104 mm) X 58.55 mm (56.2-59.0 mm) (05).
The type specimen is a captive-reared female located at the
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

Museum of Natural History (USNM 564841).
The scientific names given this species include the following:
Grus canadensis pulla Aldrich, Grus canadensis, and Grus canadensis
pratensis N.S. (01).
The ASC name for the crane is Grus canadensis (07).

Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

STATUS

Coded Status
Mississippi; Federal Endangered
Mississippi; State Listed

E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory

Non-consumptive recreational

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Mississippi sandhill crane (Grus canadensis pulla) has been
designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found
including the State of MS. Critical Habitat is designated for
this subspecies in Jackson County, MS (50 CFR 17.95(b)).
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
At the specific level, Grus candensis, is also protected by the
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13).

RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:

USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.

All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.

STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:

Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

STATE: Mississippi
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: MS Department of Wildlife Conservation
STATE STATUTE: (MS) Nongame and Endangered Species Act Sections
49-5-101 through 119, Mississippi Code of 1972.
Public Notice No. 2156 (9/1/81).

INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) is listed in Cites I, and
the IUCN Red Data Book.

ECONOMIC STATUS:
This species has tremendous aesthetic value to bird watchers and
is pursued for nonconsumptive recreational purposes.

73/06/24:38 FR 14678/ - Listed as Endangered
75/05/10:40 FR 21499/21500 - Notice of intent for Critical Habitat
75/06/30:40 FR 27501/27503 - Emergency designatin of Critical Habitat
75/09/03:40 FR 40521/40522 - Proposal for Critical Habitat
75/10/22:40 FR 49348/ - Extension of coment period for CH
77/02/22:42 FR 10462/10488 - Implementation of CITES, CITES I listing
77/08/08:42 FR 39985/39988 - Final designation of Critical Habitat
85/04/05:50 FR 13708/13722 - Revised list of Migratory Birds
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
87/09/23:52 FR 35743/35748 - Proposed revision in CITIES
87/12/28:52 FR 48820/48823 - Final rule; Reclassified to CITES-II

Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL

SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTRY TYPES
SAF TYPE STAGE CLOSURE
Longleaf Pine shrub--seedling
Longleaf Pine young tree
Longleaf Pine mature tree
Longleaf Pine Old Growth
shrub--seedling
young tree
mature tree
Old Growth

LAND USE -
Transportation, communications, and Util
Cropland and Pasture
Orchards, Groves, Vineyards, Nurseries,
Confined Feeding Operations
Herbaceous Rangeland
Deciduous Forest Land
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
Bays and Estuaries
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Transitional Areas

NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES

NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC

Palustrine FO4
Palustrine EM1
Estuarine, intertidal EM1

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Mississippi sandhill crane is confined to southern Jackson
County, MS, from the Pascagoula River west to the county line and from
4 miles north of Vancleave, MS, south to Simmons Bayou. The combined
effect of soils, elevation, topography, and drainage patterns have
created "hanging bogs," swamps, or savannas which are fairly large
near the coast, but are small farther inland. The more inland wet
prairies are in valleys of small rolling hills that range in elevation
between 15 and 24 m above mean sea level, while the larger savannas or
swamps near the coast are at elevations between 6 and 12 m above mean
sea level. Farms and open wetlands are more scarce to the north, in
this mainly forested part of Mississippi.
Nesting habitats are open savannas, swamp edges, pine plantations
and pine forest edges. The ground cover is composed of grasses,
sedges, and an array of wet-acid-soil plants. Nut-rush is the
indicator plant for nesting sites. Trees include longleaf pine, slash
pine, and bald cypress all at various stages of growth. Shrubs
include gallberry, wax myrtle, black gum, sweet bay, and others.
Water at the nest sites may range from none to a foot deep. Of 67
Habitat Associations - 1 Jackson County nests, 33 (49%) were found in open savannas; 27 (40%)
were in swamp edges and openings; 4 (6%) in pine plantations; and 3
(5%) along pine forest edges. Among 93 nest sites examined (1965 to
1983) 43 (46%) were dry on the first visit, 17 (18%) were moist, and
33 (36%) were wet (01).
The cranes in spring, summer, and fall feed on the breeding
grounds in savannas, swamps, and open fields. During the winter they
often feed in the small cornfields and pastures in the northern part
of their range. There are 2 concentration areas: 1 located 14 km
west of Vancleave and another 6 km southeast of Vancleave. Smaller
groups (from 1 to 10) may be found in other fields and pastures.
Cranes seem to feed more in grazed pastures than in croplands. Most
landowners protect the cranes on their property and do not permit
trespassing or hunting, but the cranes are always vulnerable to sneak
shooting. Surrounding agricultural landtypes that could have an
impact on crane habitat include confined feeding operations and pecan
orchards that if altered adversely, may have a negative impact on the
sandhill crane. Refuge lands may be planted in corn, chufa, or winter
rye grass. Range/pastures may be grazed by cattle or horses.
Three highways transect the crane's range in an east-west
direction: U.S. 90, Interstate Highway 10, and State Highway 57.
About 16 miles of high voltage transmission lines transect the
breeding range on or near the Mississippi Sandhill Crane NWR. Borrow
pits may occur along the highways. Roadside ditches/culverts of
highways may interupt and divert natural drainage.
The roosting grounds may be in the breeding and feeding range,
but in winter some roost in Pascagoula Marsh, near the confluence of
Bluff Creek, Paige Bayou, and Bayou Castelle to West Pascagoula River,
an area 2 by 9 km. The Pascagoula Marsh is an estuarine delta of the
Pascagoula River and the roosting marsh is in the slightly brackish
zone, with sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) the main vegetative
component. The creeks and bayous of the Pascagoula Marsh are used
intensively for fishing and to a lesser degree by waterfowl hunters.
There are no known imminent dangers, but projected environmental
disruptions include possible tourist, commercial, and industrial
developments in the marsh and waterways (05).
The marsh vegetation in the Pascagoula Marsh is mainly sawgrass
(Cladium) with minor components of other marsh plants. The creeks and
bayou banks are lined with bald cypress and several brushy species.
The roost marsh is fresh to slightly brackish but fairly salty water
may run up the bayous during droughts and high tides.
The Mississippi sandhill crane is found in the following
wetland types:
Estuarine - intertidal, emergent wetland, persistent, irregularly
flooded, mixohaline, organic soil (E2EM1).
Palustrine - emergent wetland, persistent, semipermanently
flooded, fresh water, organic soil (P0EM1).
Palustrine - emergent wetland, persistent, saturated, fresh-acid
water chemistry, sand (P0EM1).
Palustrine - forested wetland, needle-leaved evergreen,
seasonally flooded, fresh-acid water, organic soil
(P0FO4).

Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Deciduous Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Evergreen Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Mammalia
General Roots/Tubers/Rhizomes-Herbaceous
General Poaceae
General Forb Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Fish
General Amphibia
General Reptilia

Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

LIFE HISTORY

FOOD HABITS:
The cranes are opportunistic feeders preferring grazed pastures
and open savannas.
During the summer months, the cranes feed on the natural foods
found in the swamps, savannas, and open forest land. Animal foods
include adult and larval insects, earthworms, crayfish, frogs, fish,
reptiles, and rodents. Plant foods are roots, tubers, seeds, nuts,
fruits, and leafy parts.
During the fall, winter and early spring most of the cranes feed
in small corn fields and pastures several miles north of the breeding
range. Farms are scarce in this mainly forested part of Mississippi
(01). Cranes are vulnerable to shooting on the winter feeding grounds
and while flying to and from the field to their roosts. There have
been a few complaints of crane depredation on corn fields, but most
farmers welcome the cranes.

HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Paired cranes select a breeding territory for courtship, mating,
and nesting and defend it from other cranes. The territory size may
depend on the density of the birds, and also on physical attributes of
the breeding habitat itself. Territory size is hard to measure in the
Jackson County breeding range where the population is small and the
definition of each territory is difficult. In the open savannas, it
appears that only one pair takes possession despite the size of the
savannas. The smallest open savanna occupied by a pair was 90 acres;
the largest also holding one pair was over 500 acres. In the Ben
Williams swamp and in other areas, where open areas suitable for
nesting are shielded from each other by large trees and shrubs, the
cranes will nest closer together. In 1971, 3 nests in a row, a 1/2
mile apart, were found along the southern edge of Ben Williams pond.
Walkinshaw (1960) found 2 nests in Jackson County 500 feet apart in
1940.
Nesting territories are often used year after year. The active
nest is usually constructed within several hundred feet of the one
used the previous year. Old or "dummy" nests are often in close
proximity to the active nest. Nesting territories have been
deserted for 2 to 4 years and then reoccupied (06).
Territories have been deserted (or searchers could not find the
nest) for 2 to 4 years and then reoccupied. Two permanent desertions
were probably caused by brush or tree encroachment. Three territories
were not occupied after access roads were constructed into areas
proximate to the territories. A grass fire appeared to be the cause
of an abandonment. One crane nesting territory was destroyed by the
excavation of a borrow pit in the construction of interstate I-10.
If a territory is deserted for any reason, the pair may move to
another suitable area. Of the 19 identified nesting territories, 8
appear to be permanently abandoned.

PERIODICITY:
Diurnal (02).

Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Mississippi sandhill crane probably does not migrate, but
most birds fly to small cornfields or pastures to feed during the
winter. The maximum flight distance to the feeding areas is about 16
km. The winter feeding areas are a few km southeast and southwest of
Vancleave.
In fall and winter the cranes mainly roost in Pascagoula Marsh,
from where Paige Bayou, Bluff Creek, and Bayou Castelle flow together,
to the confluence of Bluff Creek and West Pascagoula River. Some
cranes fly out from the Pascagoula Marsh early in the mornings to feed
in the croplands and return to the roost in the evenings. Fewer spend
the day feeding in the swamps and savannas in the breeding range and
fly to the roosts before dark; some apparently roost in the breeding
grounds (01,05).

COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Nesting occurs in open marshy areas in savannas, swamp edges and
along pine forest edges. Water depth may range from dry to a foot
deep. A commonly found plant is nut-rush (Scleria baldwinii).
Foraging areas are generally open although the crane can tolerate open
forest land. Roosting habitat is primarily the Pascagoula River
Marsh.
The marsh vegetation here is mainly sawgrass (Cladium) with minor
components of other marsh plants. The creeks and bayou banks are
lined with bald cypress and several brushy species. The roost marsh
is fresh to slightly brackish but fairly salty water may run up the
bayous during droughts and high tides (01,05).

REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Nesting habitats are open savannas, swamp edges, pine plantations
and pine forest edges. The ground cover is composed of grasses,
sedges, and an array of wet-acid-soil plants. Nut-rush is the
indicator plant for nesting sites. Water at the nest sites may range
from none to a foot deep. The nests vary from token piles of grass,
laid on top of grasses or sedges, to large structures constructed from
local vegetation. The nests are built at ground level (06).
Most sandhill cranes of North America build their nests in the
water of shallow lakes, marshes, or tundra. The Mississippi sandhill
cranes nest in savannas, forested areas, or swamp openings that hold
shallow water or may be dry. The nests are constructed on the ground
of vegetation in the vicinity of the nest. Among 93 nest sites
examined (1965 to 1983) 43 (46%) were dry on the first visit, 17 (18%)
were moist, and 33 (36%) were wet (01).
The general nesting range in Jackson County contains more tree
and brush cover than any other sandhill crane breeding area but the
immediate area surrounding the nest is fairly open. In the larger
savannas there are scattered pines, bald cypress (Taxodium distichum),
and shrubs. Openings in the swamps, forests, and pine plantations
that are used for nesting may be less than an acre in size. Of 67
Jackson County nests, 33 (49%) were found in open savannas; 27 (40%)
were in swamp edges and openings; 4 (6%) in pine plantations; and 3
(5%) along pine forest edges.

Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The crane reaches maturity at 3 years of age and some individuals
breed at this age. The cranes begin laying in mid-March with peak
hatching during early May. Renesting will occur when the first
attempt fails and renesting may be more common than indicated by nest
surveys. The mean clutch size is 1.86 eggs with an incubation period
of 30 days. The longest successful incubation period was at least 52
days. The adults pair during breeding and at least 1 adult will
remain at the nest (06).

PARENTAL CARE:
The male and female alternately guard the nest and care for the
precocial young for 60-70 days. This parental care period is
apparently teaching the young to feed and fly. The young remain with
the adults until the fall when the birds flock for the winter (02,06).

POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The limiting factor appears to be habitat and a small number of
breeding adults. Recruitment seems to be very low, perhaps only 1-3
birds annually from the wild flock. Mortality rates for adults have
not been determined but must be very low since the population has
remained relatively stable with a low recruitment level. Longevity is
unknown. The Recovery Plan goal is a stable population of 80 to 100
cranes within the known range. The recovery potential is considered
good with the increased success of the captive breeding program and
introduction of young birds into the wild flock (01).

SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
No additional information concerning species interrelationships
with the Mississippi sandhill crane can be addressed at this time.

OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.

Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Controlling water levels
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Selective Thinning
Beneficial Timber Harvesting
Beneficial Prescribed/controlled burning of habitat
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Supplemental Feeding
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Strip mining
Existing Strip mining
Adverse Groundwater drawdown
Existing Groundwater drawdown
Adverse Flooding
Existing Flooding
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Fire
Existing Fire
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The major factor that has depressed the crane population is the
destruction of crane habitats. The primary causative agents for this
habitat loss and deterioration are silviculture, urban and suburban
growth, and highway construction.
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

Since the mid-1950's, timber companies have acquired or leased
lands for pine tree production. Thousands of acres of savannas were
planted to slash pine (Pinus elliottii). Large and small drainage
ditches were dug through savannas and watercourses to speed water
runoff. Fire, the natural agent in maintaining even wet prairies, was
almost eliminated. This encouraged pine plantation survival and also
promoted the natural reproduction of pine and brush in the unplanted
savannas. Many access roads, trails, and firelanes were constructed
for travel and fire control. Timber management has made thousands of
acres of former crane habitats unsuitable for use by the cranes. The
roads and trails into formerly isolated lands are disturbing to
nesting cranes; and allow greater access into crane environment by the
hunter and general public. Over 31 miles of timber company access
roads were constructed between 1955 and 1970 in a 17,000 acre area
within the crane environment.
Housing developments, individual homes, and small farms are
expanding into crane habitats from Ocean Springs, Fontainebleau, and
Gautier communities. Large holdings by St. Regis precluded some real
estate development, but the release of a timber purchase agreement
between St. Regis and Quinn heirs allowed for sale of about 6,000
acres of crane environment for development.
U.S. Highway 90, a four-lane east-west avenue through the crane
range, is now a strip city extending the entire distance between Ocean
Springs and Pascagoula. Mississippi Highway 57 is four-laned between
U.S. 90 and the interchange at Interstate Highway I-10. Jackson
County's Gautier-Vancleave road, formerly unimproved, is now
blacktopped. Interstate Highway I-10 is open to traffic from
Louisiana to Alabama. The completed highway and right-of-way transect
12 miles of crane environment (01).
The adverse effects of highways on the cranes are: 1) Direct
loss of the lands occupied by the highway right-of-way and borrow
areas; 2) disturbance by noise, vibratory, and visual factors; 3)
pollution of the surrounding air and soil; 4) facilitation of public
access to the crane environment; and 5) stimulation of residential and
commercial developments along the highway route, particularly in the
vicinity of interchanges and frontage roads. A major highway, such as
Interstate Highway I-10, removes about 36 acres of productive land per
mile of highway, or 430 acres for the 12 miles through the crane
range. An additional 140 acres of land was destroyed by 13 borrow
pits. The soil from these pits was used for highway fill along the
7-mile stretch of I-10 between the Seaman Road interchange and the
Mississippi State Highway 57 interchange.
In Mississippi, the constraints to crane population growth are
several, but mainly changes in land-use and the concomittant reduction
in crane environment. The most critical environmental factor is the
limited number and quality of nesting habitats.
Within this small population, the gene pool is perforce limited
compared to a large population where the genetic resources and
capabilities are greater. Some observers have indicated that the
Mississippi sandhill crane may have inherent weaknesses that are
genetic in character. The physical manifestations such as poor
hatchability of eggs, weak chicks, and foot and leg debilities in the
chicks are based on experience with eggs and birds produced in
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

captivity. Valentine observed 10 wild chicks (1965-1978) and all were
free of apparent defects. Another chick, however, died while trying
to break out of the egg.
Hurricanes and other storms may be destructive in several ways.
The strong winds can kill young and adults, or displace them to areas
in a weakened condition where they are vulnerable to various dangers.
Heavy rainfall has caused severe flooding and death of eggs and
young. Droughts may be destructive to chicks. Normally, drinking
water remains in swamp and marsh water courses, roadside ditches,
firelanes, and other ditches and stump holes during droughts. On rare
occasions, water is scarce within the breeding territories.
Before the enactment of a stock law in Jackson County, the
forests and savannas were often burned to provide winter grazing for
livestock. Incendiary forest and grass fires were frequent. Natural
wild fires still occur, but their number and severity have been
reduced through increased fire protection by the Mississippi Forestry
Commission.
Uncontrolled fires during the nesting season may destroy nests,
eggs, and young. Fires at other times may burn old nests and nesting
materials (dried grasses and other vegetation) and the cranes may
desert the area. A nesting site used in 1965 and 1966 was abandoned
after a grass fire in the winter of 1966-67.
Prescribed burning is a legitimate tool for creating or
maintaining marsh and savannas but extreme care should be used to
ensure that occupied nesting territories are not burned.
Another hazard to this bird are utility poles. Birds have been
observed to collide with utility poles.
Reports by conservation officers and others indicate that cranes
have been shot, mainly on the winter feeding grounds. There is the
possibility that cranes may be shot in their winter roost in the
Pascagoula Marsh by hunters. Hunting rarely occurs in the breeding
range. However, empty rifle and shotgun shells along roads and trails
indicate considerable target shooting activities in the area. The
cranes are subject to a slight amount of shooting as they fly into the
roost, but generally they are only vulnerable during a brief period at
daybreak and at sundown. Law enforcement patrols and an education
program aimed at hunters and fishermen should be a State and Federal
function. Sanctuary or refuge status for the Pascagoula Marsh roost
would be desirable. Developments in the marsh should be prohibited.
A sandhill crane (Patuxent:PR 933) found dead Oct 1974 north of
Ocean Springs had a fractured neck with a penetrating hole and
hemorrhage which may have been caused by gunshot. No pesticide
residues were found. An old and emaciated crane (Patuxent:PR 862) was
found dead 4 miles west of Vancleave Feb 1974. Pesticide analysis
revealed 0.14 ppm mirex in the breast muscle and 0.22 ppm in the
brain (01). This may have resulted from fire ant control spraying.
The creeks and bayous of the Pascagoula Marsh are used
intensively for fishing and to a lesser degree by waterfowl hunters.
There are no known imminent dangers, but projected environmental
disruptions include possible tourist, commercial, and industrial
developments in the marsh and waterways (05).
Sixteen Mississippi sandhill cranes have been necropsied by
the National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) since 1981. Five of
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

these cranes were diagnosed as having tumors and biliary hyperplasia.
A sixth bird was diagnosed with biliary hyperplasia only. Tumors
are believed to be quite rare in birds. The apparent problem of
an unusually high incidence of tumors in this crane population was
noted by NWHC personnel in February 1987. A study is currently
underway to identify the cause of this problem.

APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Revised Mississippi Sandhill
Crane Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA.
60 pp.

Recovery actions for the Mississippi sandhill crane include the
following:

1. Restore, improve and maintain nesting, feeding, and roosting
habitats within the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife
Refuge (MSCNWR).
1.1 Complete acquisition of refuge lands. Also, cooperative
agreements may be necessary on some State or private lands.
Sanctuary or refuge status for the Pascagoula Marsh roost
would be desirable. Developments in the marsh should be
prohibited.
1.2 Increase and improve active and potential nesting sites.
1.2.1 Hand-clear trees at swamp edges, savannas, and within
forests; burn where and when needed.
1.2.2 Retain tree and shrub buffers to separate
territories.
1.2.3 Improve water economy by monitoring and improving
control structures and levees; determine drainage
patterns; plugging drainage, road, and fire ditches;
digging small ponds for drinking in vicinity of
nesting territories if needed; and constructing
wetland cells in the Ocean Springs Unit.
1.2.4 Burn areas were nesting sites are found where and
when necessary.
1.3 Increase and improve feeding and roosting habitats by timber
harvesting in selected areas to create openings; thinning
pine timber to open stands (burning when necessary); burning
grasslands to reduce brush cover; and maintaining or
planting tree and brush cover along highways to buffer noise
and movement of vehicles.
1.4 Increase and improve winter feeding habitats by: Planting
domestic grains, tubers, and other foods; improving
croplands for invertebrate foods; scattering grain and other
foods if needed; and contracting crop plantings on private
holdings if needed.
1.5 Color leg banding and radio tracking of yound of the year.

2. Increase recruitment and reduce mortality; enhance
heterozygosity.
2.1 Maximize releases of captive-raised cranes at Patuxent
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

Wildlife Research Center by: Expanding and improving
facilities; increasing the breeding population (through
transfer of wild eggs); improve avicultural techniques
(genetics research to insure heterozygosity of population);
and by constructing acclimation-release pens at the Ocean
Springs Unit on the refuge.
2.2 Produce young at several refuge sites through a foster
program.
2.3 Use egg-switching techniques.
2.4 Monitor and evaluate releases and other techniques.
2.5 Determine mortality factors and reduce chick mortality.
2.6 Reduce subadult and adult mortality.
2.6.1 Increasing enforcement activities. Law enforcement
patrols and an education program aimed at hunters and
fishermen should be a State and Federal function.
2.6.2 Improving public relations by continuing and
expanding public education programs as well as
contact with landowners in wintering grounds.
2.6.3 Attract cranes to refuge feeding sites by increasing
and improving winter feeding habitats and by using
live decoys. Observation towers can be used to
observe feeding sites to assess success thereby
reducing human disturbance.
2.6.4 Reduce accidents, disease, and predation by:
Monitoring power lines and oil and gas exploration on
refuge; monitoring disease potential; and limiting
predation through management of lands and predator
control. (Potential predators of eggs or young birds
may include racoons and coyotes).
2.6.5 Construct holding and rehabilitation facility to care
for sick and wounded birds.

3. Improve and maintain selected habitats on State, Federal and
private lands.

4. Determine the response of cranes to habitat and biological
management by:
4.1 Conducting winter ground and aerial surveys; surveying
productivity through family group counts; monitoring nesting
success; and continuing to monitor release programs.
4.2 Analyze data to determine success or failure of programs.
4.3 Determine whether or not migrants are wintering in Jackson
County.
4.4 Determine relationship of cranes in south Baldwin County,
Alabama, to Mississippi flock via nest searches and winter
counts.

5. Review the potential for establishing one or more breeding
populations within the historic range.

Management Practices - 5 (DRAFT) - References
Species CRANE, SANDHILL, MISSISSIPPI
Species Id ESIS104001
Date 14 MAR 96

References

***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****

01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Revised Mississippi
Sandhill Crane Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Atlanta, GA. 60 pp.
02 Valentine, J.M. and R.E. Noble. 1981. The Mississippi Sandhill
Crane - Endangered or Doomed. Paper presented to the International
Crane Workshop.
03 Aldrich, J.W. Fact Sheet (draft) Mississippi Sandhill Crane.
04 Valentine, J.M. 1983. Report on the Ocean Springs Wastewater
Facilities Plan and the Relationship of the Project to the
Mississippi Sandhill Crane and its Environment. Report prepared
for USFWS.
05 Anon. 1980. The Mississippi Sandhill Crane. Report to Crane
Researh Around the World.
06 Anon. 1981. Breeding Ecology of the Mississippi Sandhill Crane in
Jackson County, Mississippi. Proceedings 1981 Crane Workshop.
07 Anon. [n.d.] Checklist of Birds of the United States and U.S.
Territories. Prepared by the Association of Systematics
Collection, Lawerence, KS.

***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****

References - 1