(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
OTHER COMMON NAMES - NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO; NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICAN; WHIP-POOR-WILL, PUERTO RICO;WHIP-POOR-WILL, PUERTO RICAN; WHIPPOORWILL and PUERTO RICO; WHIP-POOR-WILL; GUABAIRO; GUABAIRO DE PUERTO RICO;GUABAIRO PEQUENO; GUABAIRO PEQUENO DE PUERTO RICO;PAJARO BOJO
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CAPRIMULGIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - CAPRIMULGIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - CAPRIMULGUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - NOCTITHERUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - CAPRIMULGUS NOCTITHERUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Puerto Rico Nightjar
Caprimulgus noctitherus (Wetmore, 1919)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Caprimulgiformes FAMILY: Caprimulgidae
The Puerto Rico nightjar is smaller and darker than Caprimulgus
vociferus, the species that occurs on the North American mainland.
The adult Puerto Rico nightjar is about 21.5 cm long with wings 135 mm
long. The throat, upper breast and wing edges are marked with russet
(17). Like all caprimulgids, it has a gaping mouth with conspicuous
bristles around the edges. The lateral rectrices show less white than
those of Caprimulgus vociferus (16,17).
A Puerto Rico nightjar sitting on ground covered with dead leaves
and similar vegetative debris is so well camouflaged that one cannot
detect it except at very close range (11,08). Eggs are buff-brown
with numerous variably-shaped purple spots over the surface. There is
an irregularly shaped "ring" around the rounded end (08). The eggs
are not well camouflaged on the forest floor. A newly hatched chick
is reddish buff or cinnamon (08,11).
When first discovered in 1888 the Puerto Rico nightjar was
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
thought to be a migrant Caprimulgus vociferus from North America (05).
However, this was later found to be highly unlikely since no migrant
whip-poor-wills occur in the Greater Antilles east of Cuba (17). The
Puerto Rico nightjar is closely related and presumed to be derived
from the North American whip-poor-will (08). Indeed, several
authorities regarded the Puerto Rico bird as Caprimulgus vociferus
noctitherus, an insular race of C. vociferus (01,07,15). Wetmore
(23), however, named C. noctitherus from his examination of bones from
prehistoric cave deposits near Morovis (north-central Puerto Rico).
The bones of C. noctitherus discovered in the cave were distinctly
different from those of C. vociferus (23). Wetmore maintained
throughout his life that the Puerto Rico nightjar was specifically
distinct (17,23,24,25). Vincent (20), Mayr and Short (10), the
committee on Rare and Endangered Wildlife (04), and Kepler and Kepler
(08) recognized C. noctitherus as a distinct species.
The song of the Puerto Rico nightjar is notably different from
that of C. vociferus. Song may serve to maintain reproductive
isolation between closely related species, especially nocturnal birds.
Therefore, C. noctitherus is almost surely an endemic species (08).
In the literature the Puerto Rico nightjar is referred to
scientifically as Antrostomus vociferus (05) (Antrostomus was later
changed to Caprimulgus), Caprimulgus vociferus noctitherus (01,07,15)
and Caprimulgus noctitherus Wetmore (04,08,10,11,16,17,18,20,23,24,
25). Common names found in the literature are Puerto Rican
whip-poor-will, Puerto Rican nightjar, guabairo, guabairo pequeno de
Puerto Rico, guabairo pequeno, and pajaro bojo.
Only 3 known specimens exist. The type specimen, an adult female
is museum skin No. 42099 in the Chicago Natural History Museum (05,
17). It was collected 29 October 1888 near Bayamon, Puerto Rico. The
second specimen, an adult male, is in the United States National
Museum (No. 476241). It was collected in Guanica Forest, Puerto Rico
on November 30, 1961 by Ricardo Cotte and William Blasini. The third
specimen, a 2-day old chick, is in the United States National Museum
(No. 511684). It was collected by the Keplers (08) in Guanica Forest
in May 1971.
Before 1984 only 2 known photographs existed of the living bird.
One black and white photograph appears in the excellent paper by
Kepler and Kepler (08). A color photograph is found in Noble's (11)
special report. In addition, Robert E. Noble and Phillip J. Zwank of
Louisiana State University provided the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
with 2 (8" x 11") color enlargements of a Puerto Rico nightjar with 2
chicks as part of this report. The photograph was taken in Guanica
Forest on June 7, 1984. A line drawing of the bird appears in
Raffaele (16) and excellent black and white photographs of the dead
specimen collected November 30, 1961 are provided by Reynard (17).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Puerto Rico; Federal Endangered
Puerto Rico; State Listed
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Puerto Rico nightjar (Caprimulgus noctitherus) has been
designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status wherever found
including the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.; 50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Natural Resources
STATE STATUTE: Regulation to Govern the Management of Threatened
and Endangered Species in the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico, 1985. Law 70 of the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Puerto Rico nightjar is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red
Data Book of 1966. This species is also listed as Rare in "La
Convencion para la proteccion de la flora, de la fauna, y de las
bellezas escenicas naturales de los Estados Americanos. Listas de
especies de fauna y flora en vias de extincion en los estados
miembros".
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
There is no commercial utilization and minimum human contact due
to its restricted range and nocturnal habits. The species, however,
is of interest to naturalists.
73/01/15:38 FR 01521/ - Proposed rule
73/06/04:38 FR 14678/ - Amended, List of Endangered Fish & Wildl.
85/04/05:50 FR 13708/13722 - Revised list of Migratory Birds
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Deciduous Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Puerto Rico nightjar is a forest dwelling species. Only 3
known populations presently exist, and these are in the arid
southwestern portion of the island. Two of these populations occupy
dry limestone forest (Guanica and Guayanilla) while the third
population occurs in the dry secondary shrub vegetation of Susua
Forest. The species does not seem to occur below the 25 m contour,
occurs sparingly between 25 m and 75 m, and the highest population
densities are found above 75 m; usually between 75 m and 300 m (08,
11).
The Puerto Rico nightjar does not associate with riparian habitat
in Susua Forest (08,11), and no riparian habitat exists in Guanica
Forest where the bird occurs commonly. Therefore, riparian habitat is
not important to the survival of this species.
The deciduous forest in Guanica Forest (1 km east of Guanica,
Puerto Rico), which supports high numbers of Puerto Rico nightjars,
reaches 10 m in height but averages only 5 m. Ucar (Bucida buceras)
is a common tree of the forest. Stand age ranges from young stands to
old growth. Some common plants in the understory are serrasuela
(Thouinia), cucubano (Guettarda elliptica), Krugi (Krugiodendron
ferreum), aleli (Plumeria alba), coscorron (Reynosa uncinata), vanilla
(Vanilla barbellata), and Tillandsia sp. (02).
Soils in Guanica Forest exhibit water deficits for 10 months of
the year (September and October are the exceptions). Annual rainfall
is about 929 mm. The scrub forest has a basal area of 4.2 sq. m/ha,
the deciduous forest, 8 sq. m per ha, and the transition forest
(between deciduous forest and evergreen forest) 10.7 sq. m/ha (09).
The species must have relatively undisturbed forest habitat to
survive. A minimum of 300 ha of uninterrupted forest (good quality
nightjar habitat, like Guanica Forest) is probably necessary to
sustain a population of about 35 - 40 breeding pair (26). The Puerto
Rico nightjar can survive only in forests that support high insect
numbers. Montane rain forests of Puerto Rico probably cannot support
Puerto Rico nightjars due to the relatively low density of winged
insects in such forests compared to dryer forests (such as the
Commonwealth Forests of Guanica and Susua).
Specific habitat requirements of the Puerto Rico nightjar have
never been studied. Dead snags may be useful as perches (11). In May
1985 Dr. Phillip J. Zwank, Dr. Robert E. Noble, and graduate student
Franciso J. Vilella began investigating habitat requirements of the
species in Guanica and Susua forests and in the Guayanilla Hills.
This research is funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the
Louisiana State University Agricultural Experiment Station.
Any disturbance to the Commonwealth Forests of Guanica and Susua
can only adversely impact the Puerto Rico nightjar.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Snags: Unknown
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The food habits of the Puerto Rico nightjar have never been
studied. It feeds entirely on insects which it captures in mid-air.
The nightjar frequently sits on a limb and "sallies" forth like a
flycatcher to snatch insects on the wing. The Puerto Rico nightjar
feeds almost entirely below the forest canopy.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The Puerto Rico nightjar is territorial (08,11,12). Males
establish their territories and defend them against other males of
their species. In Guanica Forest, where the species is probably at
carrying capacity, territories are 8.0 ha above 75 m elevation and
18.7 ha below 75 m (11,12). Kepler and Kepler (08) said territory
size above 75 m elevation in Guanica Forest was 6.9 ha. Therefore,
the only 2 studies to investigate territory size (08,11), conducted
about 15 years apart, show very similar territory sizes.
Males sing throughout the year (08), and probably loosely occupy
their territories even during the non-nesting season. When one male
sings, this will often elicit a series of songs from males on adjacent
territories (11).
Roosting, feeding, nesting, and mating all take place within the
territory.
PERIODICITY:
During the day, most Puerto Rico nightjars sleep either on the
ground or sitting on a tree limb parallel to the ground. It is active
between crepuscular twilight and dawn twilight. Although the
nightjars sing all year long, detailed observation of their singing
habits have only been made during the breeding months of June and July
and during one non-breeding month, January. The first crepuscular
twilight song in January occurs between 1815 hrs and 1830 hrs but they
resume singing at morning twilight. In June and July the first
evening song is heard between 1905 hrs and 1925 hrs and at least some
birds sing throughout the night.
In the morning Puerto Rico nightjars stop singing abruptly at
first light. In June and July this is between 0535 and 0545; in
January between 0635 and 0645 (11,12,13).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Non-migratory (08,11,12,16,17,18,25).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The dry subtropical forest remaining in southwestern Puerto Rico
must be preserved if the Puerto Rico nightjar is to survive. The
bird presently is known to occur only in Guanica and Susua
Commonwealth Forests and on private lands east of Guayanilla. But
these areas represent the only remaining forest suitable for the bird.
The forest in the Guayanilla-Tallaboa area is privately owned and some
of it was being cleared in January 1985. All of the private forest is
grazed by domestic stock. The Commonwealth Forests of Guanica and
Susua should be preserved in an inviolate status if the Puerto Rico
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
nightjar is to survive.
At least 300 ha of continuous, undisturbed forest is required to
maintain a viable population of Puerto Rico nightjars (26).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Activities of the Puerto Rico nightjar are restricted to the dry
subtropical forest of southwestern Puerto Rico. No nest is
constructed, but rather the 2 eggs are deposited on the ground usually
near or under a small bush or shrub (08,11). The bird seems to prefer
ground covered with leaf litter on which to deposit its eggs (08,11).
The nest is never constructed in openings or clearings (08), and even
areas under the forest canopy where grass or grass-like plants cover
the ground are not used for nesting by this species. The bird relies
entirely upon its well camouflaged plumage for protection. Nesting
cover is thick with small saplings and shrubs but the ground floor is
nearly devoid of living ground cover. Dead snags may be useful as
perches (11).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Males probably occupy their territories throughout the year.
The breeding biology of the Puerto Rico nightjar has never been
thoroughly investigated. Kepler and Kepler (08) and Noble (11) are
the only ones to provide any information on the nesting biology of
this species. Nesting occurs between mid-April and early July.
Records are available on 8 nests as follows (11,14):
April 16 or 17 (first egg)
21 or 22 (first egg)
29 (contained 2 eggs)
May 6 (contained 2 eggs)
16 or 17 (contained 2 eggs)
18 or 19 (first egg)
18 or 19 (first egg)
July 1 (first egg)
Minimum breeding age is about 10 months. The maximum breeding
age is not known. The Puerto Rico nightjar (at least some pairs) may
produce 2 broods per year but this is not known for certain (08). The
pair bond probably lasts only during the nesting season. Incubation
is 19 days (08). The eggs hatch one day apart.
Eggs are buff-brown with numerous variably-shaped purple spots
over the surface. There is an irregularly shaped "ring" around the
rounded end (08). The eggs are not well camouflaged on the forest
floor. A newly hatched chick is reddish buff or cinnamon (08,11).
PARENTAL CARE:
Young are altricial at birth. Even very young chicks are moved
by the adults from the nest site (11). The chicks are capable of
running away at least by 9 days of age (11). By 14 days of age a
chick is capable of considerable movement and some flight (08,11). A
chick has adult-like plumage at 14 to 15 days of age (08). Adults, at
least in the case of one observed nest (11), were still loosely with
the chick and attempted to defend it by flying closely over the
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
observer's head when the chick was 20 to 21 days old and capable of
some sustained flight.
Young are probably independent of parental care at 25 days of
age. Duration of the family bond probably does not exceed more than a
few days after the chicks leave the nest. However, the breeding
biology and behavior of the Puerto Rico nightjar has never been
studied.
Adults depend upon their well camouflaged plumage for protection
from predators, and once detected the adults have several distraction
displays designed to lure a predator from the eggs and/or chicks.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The population biology of the Puerto Rico nightjar has never
been investigated.
The major limiting factor on the species is lack of forested
habitat within its ancestral range (11). Absolutely nothing is known
of survival rate, mortality rate, ratio of increase, sex ratios,
recovery potential, turnover rate and longevity.
The Puerto Rico nightjar is presently thought to occur at
carrying capacity in Guanica Forest and probably also in Susua Forest
(11); 324 breeding pairs occupy Guanica Forest and adjacent private
land while 68 breeding pairs occur in Susua Forest. Less exact data
are available from the Guayanilla-Tallaboa area but 200 to 260
breeding pairs are probably the maximum for that area.
Population density objectives under management depends upon the
habitat type. In Guanica Forest 1 breeding pair per 8 ha is probably
the best that can be obtained. In Susua Forest the carrying capacity,
especially north of Caretera del Bosque, is much lower - probably 1
breeding pair per 24 ha - while south of Carretera del Bosque the
carrying capacity is 1 breeding pair per 8 ha (11,12).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The pearly-eyed thrasher, Margarops fuscatus fuscatus, is known
to prey upon nightjar eggs (26).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
The male of this species has a loud and easily identified song.
Singing is most intense at crepuscular twilight and morning twilight.
For this reason the Puerto Rico nightjar is one of the easiest of all
endangered birds to census (08,11,12).
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The Puerto Rico nightjar is Endangered because most of its
original habitat (forest) has been cleared and converted into pasture,
agricultural crops, housing developments, roads, transmission
corridors, and other human usages (08,11,12,18). Grazing in forests,
logging, cutting of fence posts, petrochemical developments and
petrochemical complexes have also contributed somewhat to habitat
loss. In addition, the introduction of the mongoose (Herpestes
auropunctatus) and feral house cats have contributed to the species
decline through predation on this ground nesting species. The bird
presently is known to occur only in Guanica and Susua Commonwealth
Forests and on private lands east of Guayanilla. But these areas
represent the only remaining forest suitable for the bird. The forest
in the Guayanilla-Tallaboa area is privately owned and some of it was
being cleared in January 1985. All of the private forest is grazed by
domestic stock. The Commonwealth Forests of Guanica and Susua should
be preserved in an inviolate status if the Puerto Rico nightjar is to
survive.
All of these factors continue to threaten the remaining Puerto
Rico nightjars especially because of its restricted range, about 3
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
percent of its former range (0.7 percent of the total island land
surface).
Future perceived threats to the species center around any
significant disturbances (e.g., cutting of trees, road construction,
extensive use by humans for recreation, wild fires, etc.) to the
Commonwealth Forests of Guanica and Susua. There have been several
attempts to build picnic and camping areas on Guanica Forest.
However, the xeric condition of the forest and fire hazard have
prevented construction (18).
Interest by the surrounding municipalities in the construction
of a road or roads through the Guanica Commonwealth Forest has
been reactivated. This poses a direct threat to nightjar habitat,
particularly nesting areas through direct destruction of vegetation,
potential increase in fires and increase in density of introduced
predators.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Puerto Rican Whip-poor-will
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 16 pp.
Actions recommended for the recovery of the Puerto Rico nightjar
are:
1) Determine population size and range.
2) Determine cause of decline/limiting factors/potential threats.
Habitat destruction or modification on the public forests should
be prevented by controlling timber harvesting and road maintenance
actions.
3) Describe the natural history of the species such as reproductive
biology and feeding habits.
4) Determine ecological requirements.
5) Protect the populations on Commonwealth and private lands.
Protection via easements, conservation agreements, zoning, land
exchange and acquisition should be considered. The appropriate
measures should be implemented to control development of important
habitat.
6) Monitor population health.
7) Educate the public against adverse habitat modification.
Present recovery activities include the collection of population,
range, and natural history data to determine the causes of decline,
potential threats, and factors limiting the nightjar. The Guanica
Forest (part of the nightjar's range) was recognized as part of the
International Network of Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Bond, J. 1961. Birds of the West Indies. Houghton Mifflin Co.
Boston, MA.
02 Canals, M. 1984. Aspectos ecologicos y descripcion de habitat de
un bosque seco subtropical: Reserva forestal de Guanica.
Departamento de Recursos Naturales de Puerto Rico, Puerta de
Tierra, Puerto Rico. Mimeographed. 8 pp.
03 Canals, M. 1985. Personal communication. Biologist and
Supervisor, Guanica Forest, Dept. of Natural Resources, Guanica,
Puerto Rico.
04 Committee on Rare and Endangered Wildlife Species. 1968. Rare and
endangered fish and wildlife of the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife. Washington, D.C., Resource Publ. No. 34.
05 Cory, C.B. 1889. Antrostomus vociferus in Puerto Rico. Auk
6:276.
06 Danforth, S.T. 1936. Los pajaros of Puerto Rico. Rand McNally &
Co., N.Y. and Chicago. 233 pp.
07 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
world. Amer. Comm. on Internatl. Wildlife Protection. Spec. Publ.
13, New York.
08 Kepler, C.B. and A.K. Kepler. 1973. The distribution and ecology
of the Puerto Rican whip-poor-will, an endangered species. Living
Bird 11:207-229.
09 Lugo, A.E., J.A. Gonzales-Liboy, B. Cintron and K. Dugger. 1978.
Structure, productivity and transpiration of a subtropical dry
forest in Puerto Rico. Biotropica 19(4):278-291.
10 Mayr, E. and L. Short. 1970. Species taxa of North American
birds, a contribution to comparative systematics. Publ. Nuttall
Ornithological Club.
11 Noble, R.E. 1984. 1984 status of the endangered Puerto Rican
nightjar. Special Report. La. Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit., La. State
Univ., Baton Rouge, LA. 61 pp.
12 Noble, R.E., P.J. Zwank, and F.J. Vilella. 1985. 1985 status of
the endangered Puerto Rican nightjar. Submitted for publication.
13 Noble, R.E., P.J. Zwank, and F.J. Vilella. ?Cuando cantan los
guabairos? Submitted for publication.
14 Noble, R.E., P.J. Zwank, and F.J. Vilella. Apuntes sobre el
anidamiento del guabairo. Submitted for publication.
15 Peters, J.L. 1940. Check-list of the birds of the world, Vol.4.
Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge.
16 Raffaele, H.A. 1983. A guide to the birds of Puerto Rico and the
Virgin Islands. Fondo Educativo Interamericano, San Juan, Puerto
Rico. Pages 27, 133-134.
17 Reynard, G.B. 1962. The rediscovery of the Puerto Rican
whip-poor-will. Living Bird 1:51-60.
18 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for the
Puerto Rican Whip-poor-will, Caprimulgus noctitherus. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 16 pp.
19 Vilella, F.J., P.J. Zwank, and R.E. Noble. 1986. El guabairo
occure en los cerros de Guayanilla, Puerto Rico. Carribbean J.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species NIGHTJAR, PUERTO RICO
Species Id ESIS104006
Date 14 MAR 96
Sci. [In press].
20 Vincent, J. 1966. Puerto Rico whippoorwill. IN: Red Data Book,
Vol. 2, Aves, IUCN, Survival Service Committee, Morges,
Switzerland.
21 Wadsworth, F.H. 1949. The development of the forest land
resources of the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. Ph.D. diss.,
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. 253 pp.
22 Wetmore, A. 1916. Birds of Puerto Rico. U.S. Dept. Agric.,
Washington, D.C. U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 326.
23 Wetmore, A. 1919. Description of a whippoorwill from Puerto Rico.
Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, D.C. 32:235-237.
24 Wetmore, A. 1922. Bird remains from the caves of Puerto Rico.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 46:297-333.
25 Wetmore, A. 1927. The birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands. N.Y. Acad. Sci., Scientific Survey of Puerto Rico and the
Virgin Islands, Vol. 9, Pt. 4.
26 Noble, Robert E. 1985. Personal communication. School of
Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, LA 70803.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Kepler, C.B. and A.K. Kepler. 1973. The distribution and ecology
of the Puerto Rican whip-poor-will, an endangered species. Living
Bird 11:207-229.
02 Noble, R.E. 1984. 1984 status of the endangered Puerto Rican
nightjar. Special Report. La. Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit., La. State
Univ., Baton Rouge, LA. 61 pp.
03 Reynard, G.B. 1962. The rediscovery of the Puerto Rican
whip-poor-will. Living Bird 1:51-60.
04 Wetmore, A. 1922. Bird remains from the caves of Puerto Rico.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 46:297-333.
05 Vilella, F.J., P.J. Zwank, and R.E. Noble. 1986. El guabairo
occure en los cerros de Guayanilla, Puerto Rico. Carribbean J.
Sci. [In press].
References - 2