(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
OTHER COMMON NAMES - FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC; FALCON, PEREGRINE; FALCON, PEREGRINE, TUNDRA; FALCON, PEREGRINE, BEACH; FALCON, FOOTED, GREAT-; GAVIAO; PEREGRINE; HAWK and DUCK; HALCON PEREGUINO
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - FALCONIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FALCONIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - FALCO,
SPECIES AND SSP - PEREGRINUS, TUNDRIUS
SCIENTIFIC NAME - FALCO PEREGRINUS TUNDRIUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Arctic Peregrine Falcon
Falco peregrinus tundrius White, 1968
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Falconiformes FAMILY: Falconidae
The species is a large falcon measuring about 35 cm long in the
male and 43 cm in the female (01). The immature is some shade of
brown or tan on the back usually with paler edgings to the back
pattern; with a conspicuous malor stripe (frequently very thin with a
break in it just below the eye) and with varying degrees of brown or
tan streaking on the ventral surface. Head color may be paler than
back color. Adults are some shade of blue-gray on the back with a
variable sized malor stripe (sometimes broken) and with horizontal
barring or spotting on the ventral surface (02). A pale rufous or
pink may occur on the breast especially in fresh plumage. The color
variation overlaps more southern populations along the tundra-taiga
interface and considerable variation may occur in some areas. The
falcon was formerly called duck hawk (03) and in editions of the AOU
Check-list up to the 5th edition (04) is included with the race
anatum. It was only separated recently from anatum (05) and is so
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
recognized in the most recent revision of Peters Check-list of Birds
of the World (06). Manning et al. (40) postulated that all lightly
marked far northern peregrines belong to one holoarctic geographic
race to which they apply the name leucogenys, which most recent
authors consider a synonym of calidus (05). According to the 1957 AOU
Checklist (04), the subspecific name harterti was used in the
description of one specimen from Cape Prince of Wales, AK (05).
Harterti is properly considered a synonym of japonensis but has also
been placed in synonymy with calidus (05). The type specimen is from
Canada's Northwest Territories and is in the Canadian National Museum,
Ottawa (05).
The common name "Gaviao" is used for the family Falconidae by
Brazil in the 1941 Western Hemisphere Convention Annex list. Other
common names include: halcon pereguino (Mexico), tundra peregrine
falcon, beach peregrine falcon, great-footed falcon, peregrine falcon,
or (simply) peregrine.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Threatened
Alabama; State Listed
Alabama; Unofficially Listed
Arkansas; State Recognized
Florida; Federal Threatened
Florida; Officially Listed
Georgia; Federal Threatened
Georgia; State Recognized
Kentucky; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Threatened
Louisiana; State Recognized
Maryland; Federal Threatened
Maryland; State Recognized
Mississippi; State Listed
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
Coded Status
North Carolina; State Listed
Puerto Rico; State Listed
South Carolina; State Listed
Tennessee; State Listed
Virginia; State Listed
West Virginia; State Recognized
West Virginia; Unofficially Listed
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
T: Federal Threatened
Federal Migratory
Commercial
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Arctic peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius) has been
designated a Threatened species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The subspecies has this status wherever found
including from northern Alaska to Greenland and south to Central and
South America. However, on April 19, 1984, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service promulgated a rule classifying all free-flying Falco
peregrinus not otherwise identifiable as a listed subspecies, to be
Endangered under the "Similarity of Appearance" provisions of the
Endangered Species Act (50 CFR 17.50-17.52), in the 48 conterminous
States.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or any foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The subspecies is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty
Act (16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) under the species name Falco
peregrinus (50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
BLM -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control (43 CFR 4140). Also
responsible for management/recovery on Bureau lands.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered. (AL) Nongame Wildlife Species.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AL) Div. of Game and Fish/ Game and Fish Reg. 87-GF-7;
(AK) Dept. of Fish and Game/ AK Stat. 16.20.180 to 16.20.210;
(CO) Div. of Wildl./ CO Revised Stat., Sec. 33-8-103(4);
(CT) Dept. of Environmental Protection/ CT Gen. Stat. Annot.,
Sec. 26-40d and 26-40e;
(FL) Game and Freshwater Fish Comm./ Rule 39-27.03 FL Admin.
Code, July 1983;
(IL) Dept. of Conserv./ 17 IL Admin. Code 1010.30, Feb. 1982;
(IA) Div. of Fish and Game/ IA Admin. Code 290-19.1, Sept. 1977;
(KS) Fish and Game Comm./ KS Admin. Regs. 23-17-1, May 1980;
(MA) Div. of Fisheries and Wildl./ MA Gen. Laws Annot. 131, Sec.
26A;
(MI) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MI Compiled Laws Annot., Sec. 299.221 to
299.230, MI Admin. Code 299.1021 to .1028, Feb. 1983;
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
(MN) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MN Code of Agency Rules, Sec. 1.5600 to
1.5601, Eff. Dec. 1, 1983;
(MS) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ MS Public Notice No. 2156, Eff.
Sept. 1, 1981;
(NE) Game and Parks Comm./ NE Admin. Rules and Regs., Vol. 13,
6-(4) 1984, Revised Stat. of NE, Sec. 37-430 to 438;
(NV) Dept. of Wildl./ NV Admin. Code, Sec. 503.015 to 503.080,
Dec. 21, 1981;
(NH) Fish and Game Dept./ NH Code of Admin. Rules Fis. 1001.01,
1001.02, Eff. Apr. 28, 1980;
(NJ) Dept. of Environmental Protection/ Div. of Fish, Game and
Wildl., NJ Admin. Code 7:25-11.2, Eff. Mar. 29, 1979;
(NM) Dept. of Game and Fish/ NM Reg. No. 624, Eff. July 22, 1983;
(NY) Dept. of Environmental Conserv./ 6 NY Code, Rules and Regs.
182.5, Apr. 30, 1983;
(NC) Wildl. Res. Comm./ 15 NC Admin. Code 10 I .0003, Eff. July
28, 1979;
(OH) Dept. of Nat. Res., Div. of Wildl./ OH Admin. Code
1501:31-23-01, Eff. July 11, 1980;
(PR) Dept. of Nat. Res./ Organic Act, Sec. 155; and Wildl. Act,
Sec. 85 and 91. Reg. to Govern the Mngmnt. of Threatened
and Endangered Sp. in the Commonwealth of PR, 1985;
(SC) Wildl. and Marine Res. Dept./ SC Regs. 123-150;
(TN) Wildl. Res. Agency/ TN Wildl. Proc. No. 75-15, as amended,
Dec. 8, 1978;
(TX) Parks and Wildl. Dept./ 31 TX Admin. Code Sec. 57.133
(127.30.09.003), July 1977;
(VT) Fish and Game Dept./ VT Regs. Annot. 13-79.1, July 1, 1975;
(VA) Comm. of Game and Inland Fish./ Code of VA Sec. 29-230 to
29-237;
(WA) Dept. of Game/ WA Admin. Code 232-12-014, June 1, 1981;
(WI) Dept. of Nat. Res./ NR 27.03 WI Admin. Code, Eff. Oct.,
1981.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Threatened.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AZ) Game and Fish Dept./ AZ Revised Stat., Sec. 17-101;
(AR) Game and Fish Comm./ AR Stat., Sec. 47-101, 47-117, 47-118,
and 47-119;
(CA) Fish and Game Comm./ CA Fish and Game Code, Sec. 2052;
(DE) Dept. of Nat. Res. and Environ. Control/ 7 DE Code Annot.,
Sec. 601;
(GA) Game and Fish Div./ Rules and Regs. of the State of GA, Sec.
391-4-13-.09, Jan. 11, 1981;
(ID) Dept. of Fish and Game/ ID Code, Sec. 36-103;
(IN) Div. of Fish and Wildl./ IN Stat. Annot., Sec. 14-2-8.5-1,
310 IN Admin. Code 3-3-6;
(KY) Dept. of Fish and Wildl. Res./ KY Rev. Stat. 150.183, 301 KY
Admin. Reg. 3:061;
(LA) Wildl. and Fisheries Comm./ LA Stat. Annot. 56:1901 to
56:1907;
(ME) Dept. of Inland Fish. and Wildl./ ME Rev. Stat. Annot., Sec.
7001, 7751-7756;
Status - 5 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
(MD) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MD Nat. Res. Code Annot., Sec. 4-2A-01
to 4-2A-09, 10-2A-01 to 10-2A-09, Code MD Regs. 08.03.01.43,
Supp. 4;
(MO) Dept. of Conserv./ MO Rev. Stat. 252.240, 3 Wildl. Code of
MO 10-4.111, Eff. Jan. 1, 1983;
(MT) Dept. of Fish, Wildl., and Parks/ MT Code Annot. 87-5-101 to
112, MT Admin. Register 12.5.201;
(ND) Game and Fish Dept./ ND Century Code 20.1-10-02 and
20.1-02-05;
(OK) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ 29 OK Stat. Annot., Sec. 2-109,
2-135, 7-501, 7-502, 7-504, and 7-602;
(OR) Dept. of Fish and Wildl./ OR Rev. Stat. 498.026;
(PA) Game Comm./ 58 PA Code Sec. 147.1, 147.21, Mar. 1983;
(RI) Dept. of Environ. Mngmt/ Gen. Laws of RI Sec. 20-37-1 to
20-37-5;
(SD) Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks/ Admin. Rules of SD 41:10:02,
Eff. Mar. 16, 1978;
(UT) Dept. of Nat. Res./ UT Code Annot. 23-13-2 to 23-13-4;
(WV) Dept. of Nat. Res./ WV Code, Sec. 20-7-7(1), WV Code, Sec.
20-1-1;
(WY) Game and Fish Dept./ WY Stat. Annot., Sec. 23-1-302.
STATE: Alabama, West Virginia
UNOFFICIAL LIST: (AL) Endangered; Endangered and Threatened
Plants and Animals of Alabama. AL Mus. of
Nat. Hist., Bull. No. 2, 1976, Univ. of AL.
(AL) Threatened; Mount, R.H. (ed.). 1986.
Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of
special attention. Ala. Agr. Expt. Sta.,
Auburn Univ. 124 pp.
(WV) Endangered; Special Animal List, Wildl.
Res. Div., WV Dept. of Nat. Res.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is listed in Appendix I
of CITES. The arctic peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius) is
listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red Data Book, 1979 but, the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Animals, 1986 lists the species (Falco
peregrinus) as "Vulnerable." The arctic peregrine falcon is also
classified as Threatened in Canada by the Committee on the Status of
Endangered Wildlife in Canada (April 1985). Although raptors are not
included under Canada's Migratory Bird Convention Act, most Provinces
and Territories have Fish and Wildlife Acts and most protect raptors.
Ontario and New Brunswick maintain a Provincial Endangered Species
list and the peregrine is on them, however the subspecies tundrius is
not specified in New Brunswick. Contact each Provincial government
for specifics.
In 1982, Mexico published "Especies de Fauna en Peligro de
Extincion en Mexico" for CITES which is treated as an official list,
and includes the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). The family
Falconidae (Gaviao) is listed by Brazil (1941) and the subspecies is
listed by the U.S. (1970) in the Convention on Nature Protection
and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere Annex.
Status - 6 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Positive values: (1) sensitive indicator of certain environmental
pollutants; (2) high aesthetic value to many people and
non-consumptive recreational value to bird enthusiasts; (3) highly
prized for falconry purposes.
Negative values: (1) preys on some bird species taken by humans
for food and recreation; (2) occasionally preys on domesticated birds.
70/06/02:35 FR 08491/08498 - Listing
70/10/13:35 FR 16047/16048 - Listing
75/05/16:40 FR 21499/21500 - Notice of Intent; Critical Habitat
76/01/15:41 FR 02238/ - Falconry Standards
77/02/22:42 FR 10462/10488 - Implementation CITES - CITES I
80/07/22:45 FR 49602/ - Final Rule - migratory bird hunting
80/08/13:45 FR 53982/ - Suppl. Proposed Rule - migr. bird hunting
80/09/04:45 FR 58540/ - Final Rule - migratory bird hunting
81/07/29:46 FR 38868/ - Final Rule - migratory bird hunting
81/08/17:46 FR 41736/ - Suppl. Proposed Rule - migr. bird hunting
81/08/21:46 FR 42642/ - Final Rule - migratory bird hunting
81/09/01:46 FR 43892/ - Public Notice - request for comment
81/09/09:46 FR 45098/ - Final Rule - migratory bird hunting
81/09/18:46 FR 46542/ - Final Rule - migratory bird hunting
81/10/30:46 FR 53870/ - Rules scheduled for review or development
82/04/20:47 FR 16936/ - Rules scheduled for review or development
82/05/06:47 FR 19648/ - Public Notice
82/06/16:47 FR 26081/ - Proposed oil & gas lease sale
82/09/13:47 FR 40362/ - Oil & gas lease sale
82/10/28:47 FR 48464/ - Rules scheduled for review or development
83/01/12:48 FR 01325/ - Proposed Rule
83/03/01:48 FR 08796/ - Proposed Rule
83/06/17:48 FR 27896/ - Oil & gas exploration plans, Arctic NWR
83/07/08:48 FR 31600/31610 - Raptor Exemption
84/03/20:49 FR 10520/10526 - Reclassification rule
87/07/10:52 FR 26030/ - Availability of EA re: propagation regs.
Status - 7 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Streams and Canals
Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
Tundra Land: Shrub Brush
Tundra Land: Herbaceous
Tundra Land: Bare Ground
Tundra Land: Wet
Tundra Land: Mixed
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, intermittent RS2
Riverine, intermittent RB2
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, upper perennial
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal RS1
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, subtidal OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Within Alaska, the Arctic peregrine falcon or tundrius
population is defined as occurring in tundra regions north or west of
the tree line but not in tundra regions of the Aleutian Islands or
Alaska Peninsula (02,05). This subspecies is found nesting north of
the Brooks Range alpine tundra on the North Slope of Alaska and
westward on the Seward Peninsula.
The major habitat associations are riparian (riverine) with
tundra (wet and dry, sometimes with shrub thickets) adjacent to the
river. Canyons are often used because a cliff or outcrop is an
essential feature of breeding and of canyons. Steep cliff lined
river banks or coastal areas are most frequently used for nesting
while hunting and food gathering usually occurs either in the air
space over the river or ocean, along the riparian habitat or over the
tundra (19,20).
Currently only cliffs or bluffs are used for nesting by Alaskan
tundrius populations. Should pairs make a move to flat (herbaceous)
or bare tundra as they have in Eurasia (07), they would be virtually
unrestricted in breeding sites. Eggs are either laid directly on the
earth substratus of a ledge or pot hole in a cliff, an abandoned stick
nest of another bird on a cliff or hillside, or on the brink of a
knoll or cliff. The ledge is usually relatively open, without
protection from above. Frequently there is a "screen" of vegetation
on the ledge or if not a "screen", there is at least some vegetation.
In some cases the eggs are laid directly under a bush or on the brink
of a slope or ledge from whence the bluff falls off into the river
(19). The species usually does not nest above about 650 meters
elevation, although there are doubtless exceptions, and the species
can be found hunting or migrating about that elevation. During the
Habitat Associations - 1 early spring arrival or post-breeding times the falcons are not tied
to any one habitat type but once breeding starts they are clearly
associated with the area to within several kilometers of the nest.
The habitat is generally abundant enough that unless massive
regions of tundra were destroyed or turned into oil field regions it
would be hard to invision hunting habitat loss. Such alterations
however, may still provide enough bird prey species. This needs
confirmation.
The one habitat alteration that clearly would cause permanent
loss and abandonment of the habitat would be cliff destruction or
other use that would render them unsecure for the falcon. There are
no data for Alaska to indicate just what degree of impact would be
necessary on cliffs to make them unusable. An aircraft runway
adjacent to some eyries has not caused destruction nor has the Alaska
pipeline, although the latter is usually in excess of 2-3 km from
eyries (21). Likewise, there are no data to indicate the specific
variables in the hunting habitat (lake size, percentage ground cover,
size or frequency of open patches, etc.) necessary for use or
abandonment. There seem to be no specific temperature requirements
although temperature may affect food supply and thus have an indirect
effect upon the falcon. The Arctic peregrine falcon may mix with and
intergrade with American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)
populations where "fingers" of forest habitat move into the tundras.
The migration out of Alaska starts in August and some migrants
are seen moving along the Alcan Highway (25,26). They generally reach
the contiguous U.S. by mid-September (27,28,29) and have probably
established winter territories by November. Principle stopover places
are on the Texas Gulf Coast (29) and Eastern Shore of Maryland (28,
30). It may be assumed that the migratory routes are essentially the
same as the major migration routes used by waterfowl, although a
peregrine may turn up anywhere during the migration season. During
migration the species can be found on most of the smaller Pacific
Ocean sandy or coral islands (e.g., Micronesia), and small isolated
Atlantic Ocean islands.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
General Reptilia
General Mammalia
General Aves
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Food habits of the Arctic peregrine falcon are basically derived
from 3 regions, during different periods of its life history; Alaskan
breeding grounds, migration routes, and the southern wintering grounds
(07,19,20). In some cases the same food species are used in all 3
regions. Some prey species migrate to and from the same wintering
grounds and at the same temporal sequence as the falcon. Other
important food items are species resident in Alaska (19). The
migration food sources or species and those found on the wintering
grounds may be the ones that are most critical in accounting for
chlorinated hydrocarbon body burdens (13). However, there is very
little data on this (13,19). During the initial courtship and early
breeding periods the food items represent adult bird species. From
mid-summer through migration however, a large portion of the food is
composed of birds-of-the-year (20). Bird species in the weight class
of 40-500 grams make up the bulk of the food (19). The entire bird
may be eaten although frequently the feet, legs, heads, wings distal
from the elbow and breast bone remains uneaten. Feathers are most
frequently plucked from the carcasses prior to eating (20). Prey
species are usually identified, in addition to direct observation
(09), by examining regurgitated pellets, loose feathers, feet, wings
and sundry skeletal parts. Prey species are too numerous to list but
the 2 most complete studies (20,19) found 20 and 43 species,
respectively (total of 46 species) for a combined 4-year period. The
2 major types of birds that were most frequently taken were gulls and
shorebirds, and passerines, with each group comprising about 42% of
total diet (19). Two items that vary considerably from year-to-year
are jaegers (Stercorarius sp.) and the common snipe (Capella
gallinago) from the gull and shorebird group. The jaegers vary
directly with the density of their main prey, rodents. The 46 bird
species taken comprise about 65% of those species available for food.
Birds comprise approximately 98% of the peregrine's diet. Other
species that may be consumed include small mammals, reptiles, and
insects.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The Arctic peregrine falcon is territorial. Accurate home range
and territory sizes have not been determined for Alaska. However, a
model has been suggested in which the center of the territory is the
nesting site (20). From this model, an unknown area around the
nesting site, perhaps only 100 m, is always defended against intruders
while another area around this 100 m is defended only sometimes. In
an area of perhaps 2 kilometers around the nest, the falcon may attack
intruders over food items or roosting perches. The home range in
tundra regions may include 250 sq. km around the nest (22). In
another study (23), 47% of the hunting within the home range of the
female was further than 1 km from the nest while 65% of the male's
flights were beyond 1 km. Of the 179 hunting flights that were
followed, 20 were between 3-8 km from the eyrie with an average of 5
km. Winter territories were established which appear to be smaller
than territories on the breeding grounds (10).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
PERIODICITY:
The subspecies is diurnal although individuals do see well at
night and may actually fly to or from hunting areas before civil
twilight or sunset (24). Within Alaska, most seasonal activity occurs
between April and Sept. and thereafter the species is migrating or on
wintering grounds.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Within the Alaskan range the Arctic peregrine is migratory. The
routes of migration are not well known once outside Alaska although
individuals from the Alaskan tundra regions have been recovered in
Argentina, Washington State, California, Louisiana, Maryland, Texas,
Virginia, Alberta and Saskatchewan (the latter 2 were still migrating)
(14). The migration out of Alaska starts in August and some migrants
are seen moving along the Alcan Highway (25,26). They generally reach
the contiguous U.S. by mid-September (27,28,29) and have probably
established winter territories by November. The movement out of
Alaska may be on a broad front or may follow leading lines, but such
data are unknown. Principle stopover places are on the Texas Gulf
Coast (29) and eastern shore of Maryland (28,30). Spring migrants are
once again on the Texas Gulf Coast by April and arrival on the Arctic
Slope is not likely until early May (20,31). It may be assumed that
the migratory routes are essentially the same as the major migration
routes used by waterfowl, although a peregrine may turn up anywhere
during the migration season.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The requirements for shelter are minimal. Shelter in general
terms may be said to be cliffs on which to roost away from predators.
Vegetative cover does not really apply to this species other than
there are often "screens" of vegetation on the nesting area that
protects the young and offers shade. Most often the nest is so
exposed (on the brink of a knoll) that vegetation offers the only
cover.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Currently only cliffs or bluffs are used for nesting by Alaskan
tundrius populations. Should pairs make a move to flat tundra as they
have in Eurasia (07), they would be virtually unrestricted in breeding
sites. Eggs are either laid directly on the earth substratus of a
ledge or pot hole in a cliff, an abandoned stick nest of another bird
on a cliff or hillside or on the brink of a knoll or cliff. The ledge
is usually relatively open, without protection from above. Frequently
there is a "screen" of vegetation on the ledge or if not a "screen",
there is at least some vegetation. In some cases the eggs are laid
directly under a bush or on the brink of a slope from whence the bluff
falls off into the river (19).
The sample of different nest sites used from tundra regions
probably exceeds 100 but uniform data have not been gathered on all
sites. The largest single sample of 25 cliffs with nests gave the
following dimensions for nest site placement: 34 m above the river
(range: 9-75 m), 12 m below the cliff brink (range: 0-45 m), and 11 m
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
above the cliff base (range: 0-45 m) (19). Frequently, the cliff
starts at the level of the river but some have their bases 180-200 m
above the river.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Some courtship takes place in the air, usually in front of a
cliff (09). Courtship consists of a series of rolls, stoops,
calling by the male, and mutual soaring. There are also elaborate
ledge displays that initiate copulation (32). During this time both
sexes scrape or make shallow depressions in the soil substratum of the
ledge (32).
Both sexes obtain adult plumage when 1 year old and may breed at
that age, but normally first breeding takes place at 2 years of age
(07). The mean age of breeders is not known for Alaskan populations
although several females have occupied the same site for 4-5 years
(20,33). The oldest known female nesting appears to be about 18 years
old (07). Many falcons are still alive and breeding successfully
after 13-14 years (34). Normally only 1 clutch is laid per year.
Incubation takes about 32 days (35).
The breeding success is subject to some annual variation, in part
because of weather but also because of egg breakage and nestling
mortality (16). On average, the clutch size was about 3.0 per nest
historically (20) with a fledging rate of 2.0 per successful pair and
1.2 per total attempt (20). By 1973, successful pairs were still
producing at a good rate with 2.3 per pair, but the number of young
per total attempt had fallen to 0.6 (11). Thus many pairs were
failing completely.
PARENTAL CARE:
Both male and female incubate but the female spends about 80-90
pct. of the time incubating. Once eggs hatch, the young are able to
fly in about 45 days (36). Within 2-3 weeks they may be independent
of the adults (36), and normally fall migration breaks up the family
unit, although siblings may migrate together for some distance. Both
sexes defend the nest against intruders (20). Young are altricial at
birth and during the first 2-3 weeks of life the female remains to
guard the nest while the male hunts (20).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Food supply may be a limiting factor in some situations. It is
clear that the most dense populations of this falcon occur in areas of
extremely abundant food supplies (37) and it is less common, than may
occur for some congeners, in areas of low food supply (38).
Peregrines may be nest site limited in areas where cliffs are lacking
(10). Other than human or other mammal predation (fox, bears, etc.)
on young, the adult is relatively predator free although eagles may
kill them. Diseases do occur in the species (07) but in Alaska
disease is probably not a limiting factor. Golden eagles (Aquila
chrysaetos) certainly interact with them for use of certain cliffs and
where eagles occur falcons usually leave the cliff.
Survival and mortality rates are only known from limited data.
Models describing these rates (07,10) suggest that most populations of
this species have about a 50-70% mortality the first year of life and
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
a 19-30% mortality thereafter. The sex ratio is about 50:50 at
fledging, but males may have a higher mortality (10). Turnover
studies, now in progress in European populations (39), are not fully
analyzed so differential sex mortality that may occur is not
fully documented. Suitable management practices involve elimination
or reduction of harmful chemicals from the environment and protection
of the adult breeding population from abnormal mortality.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Within the range of tundrius populations in Alaska, the common
raven (Corvus corax) and rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus) provide
unused nests for falcons (19). The gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) may
use the same cliff as the peregrine and usually it is not tolerated by
the peregrine to the extent that rough-legged hawks on the same cliff
are (19,20). The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) may nest close to
falcons in what is an apparent attempt to utilize the protection the
falcons provide by driving away predators. Other species may do the
same but such is not documented. Most relationships are mutualistic
or commensal. Any other interrelationships that the falcon may have
with species is probably in the form of food getting attempts.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
It is believed that all species have a net productivity necessary
to keep the population stable. Because of the presumed turnover rate,
mortality, and longevity that models produce for the peregrine, it has
been suggested that something on the order of 1.2 young fledged for
nesting attempt is necessary for peregrine stability (07). The
Alaskan tundrius population has fallen below that level for several
years, especially between 1972-76 (16,17,19).
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Adverse Rock Climbing
Existing Rock Climbing
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The main reason for the status of this population is a result
of persistent synthetic chemicals in the environment (07). Those
that affect the population most seriously seem to be chlorinated
hydrocarbons (07,08,09). Reproductive failure during egg and small
nestling stage is the major time period that populations are affected
(08). Direct mortality to adults, although not the principle
variable, may still be a significant factor (09,10). Effect of
chemicals on the breeding grounds probably resulted from eating
contaminated food rather then direct impacts. The food and falcons
themselves acquired deleterious chemicals during migration or on the
wintering grounds (11,12,13). These factors are presumably still
present along the migratory route or on wintering grounds (12,13).
Some minor and probably insignificant number of eyries have been
rendered unusable by direct habitat alteration in recent years (14).
Shoreline development where there are suitable cliffs for nesting
followed by an increased human population and rock climbing may have
been a disturbance providing additional stress on some eyries.
Starting in the late 1960's and continuing through the 1970's there
were periods of low population levels (11,14,16,17). The decline was
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
seemingly most severe in the mid 1970's (11) and the population was
reduced by about half (17) over the original and historical number
(11,19).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the
Peregrine Falcon-Alaska Population. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, AK. 69 pp.
The Recovery Plan for the Alaska population of the peregrine
falcon specifically lists the following recovery tasks:
1. Insure sufficient habitat. Important nesting and foraging areas
are being identified through such means as literature searches, field
surveys, and banding/marking/telemetry programs for following and
relocating free-flying peregrines.
2. Insure adequate protection on the nesting areas, migration routes,
and wintering areas. This is being accomplished by minimizing or
modifying human activities in these areas. Protective measures
during nesting periods includes aircraft altitude restrictions,
reduction of aircraft noise levels, prohibition of ground level
activities and noise (i.e., mining, boating, ORV use, human access,
etc.), prohibition of construction or habitat alterations, and
restrictions on pesticide applications.
3. Monitor population trends. Surveys are conducted to ascertain
occupancy and productivity of peregrine falcons in each of the four
recovery regions with emphasis on major breeding concentrations
(especially in Alaska). Blood, tissue, feather, and egg samples
are being collected to monitor pesticide and other contaminant levels.
4. Conduct field research on prey species on the breeding grounds,
migration routes, and wintering areas. This work is being done in
an effort to determine sources and levels of contamination.
5. Prevent killing, taking, or disturbance of falcons through
enforcement of State and Federal laws.
6. Captive breeding and reintroduction of peregrine falcons. This is
a major recovery task for the Eastern, Rocky Mountain, Southwest, and
Pacific recovery populations. Peregrines are propagated by The
Peregrine Fund at their Boise, Idaho, and Santa Cruz, California,
facilities with support from numerous private cooperators, and
released in suitable locations employing hacking, fostering, and/or
cross-fostering release techniques. Artificial structures may be
necessary to conduct some of thes activities. Rehabilitation of
injured individuals may be necessary.
7. Develop and implement education programs. This effort includes
but is not limited to the preparation of brochures and posters, radio
and television spots, and slide/video programs for distribution to
schools, conservation agencies, and sportsman's groups.
Recovery strategies involve studies, protection of the species,
protection of habitat and international cooperation to reduce the
impact of chemical pollutants on the species.
1. Studies involve nesting surveys, identification of migration
routes, monitoring of pollutant levels in eggs, and determination
of prey species.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
2. Protection is accomplished through surveillance of nesting areas by
law enforcement officers and through Section 7 consultation with
other Federal agencies.
3. International cooperation to reduce chemical pollutant levels would
involve treaties or other agreements with countries in Central and
South America where the species winters and where DDT and related
pesticides are still used.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
References
*****REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE*****
01 Robbins, C.S., B. Bertel, and H.S. Zim. 1983. A guide to field
identification - Birds of North America, 2nd ed. Golden Press, New
York.
02 White, C.M. 1968. Biosystematics of the North American peregrine
falcon. Ph.D. Diss. Univ. of UT. Salt Lake City, UT. 195 pp.
03 Friedmann, H. 1950. The birds of North and Middle America. U.S.
Nat. Mus. Bull. 50 (pt 11):1-793.
04 American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of North
American Birds, 5th ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Baltimore, MD.
05 White, C.M. 1968. Diagnosis and relationship of the North
American tundra-inhabiting peregrine falcons. Auk 85:179-191.
06 Mayr, E. and G.W. Cottrell, editors. 1979. Check-list of birds of
the World, vol.1, 2nd ed. Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Cambridge, MA.
07 Hickey, J.J., editor. 1969. Peregrine falcon populations: their
biology and decline. Univ. Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI.
08 Peakall, D.B. 1976. The peregrine falcon and pesticides.
Canadian Field-Nat. 90:301-307.
09 Ratcliffe, D. 1980. The peregrine falcon. T & AD Poyser Ltd.,
Calton, England.
10 Newton, I. 1979. Population ecology of raptors. Buteo Books.,
Vermillion, SD.
11 White, C.M. and T.J. Cade. 1977. Long term trends of peregrine
populations in Alaska. R.D. Chancellor, ed. Proc. World Conference
on Birds of Prey: Oct. 1-3, 1975, Vienna, Austria. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Great Britain. Pp. 63-72.
12 Risebrough, R.W. 1983. Pers. comm. The Bodega Bay Institute,
2711 Piedmont Ave., Berkeley, CA.
13 Henny, C.J., F.P. Ward, K.E. Riddle, and R.M. Prouty. 1982.
Migratory peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus, accumulate
pesticides in Latin America during winter. Canadian Field Nat.
96:333-338.
14 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the
Peregrine Falcon-Alaska Population. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Anchorage, AK. 69 pp.
15 Ambrose, R. 1982. Pers. comm. USFWS, Endangered Species Off.,
Anchorage, AK.
16 Fyfe, R.W., S.A. Temple, and T.J. Cade. 1976. The 1975 North
American peregrine falcon survey. Canadian Field-Nat. 90:228-273.
17 Ambrose, R.E. 1980. Results of 1980 peregrine falcon surveys on
the upper Yukon, Charley and Colville Rivers, Alaska. Typed report
on file at: USFWS, Endangered Species Office, Anchorage, AK.
18 Ambrose, R.E. 1982. Prey of the peregrine falcon on the upper
Yukon River in Alaska and the habitat of the prey species. Proc.
Symp. and Workshop on Raptor Management and Biology in Alaska and
Western Canada. W.N. Ladd and P.F. Schempf, ed. Feb.17-20, 1981.
Anchorage, AK. FWS/AK/PROC-82. P. 187.
19 White, C.M. and T.J. Cade. 1971. Cliff-nesting raptors and ravens
along the Colville River in arctic Alaska. Living Bird 10:107-150.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
20 Cade, T.J. 1960. Ecology of the peregrine and gyrfalcon
populations in Alaska. Univ. CA Publ. Zool. 63:151-290.
21 White, C.M., T.D. Ray, and L. Sowl. 1977. The 1970-1974 raptor
surveys along the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline. R.D. Chancellor, ed.
Proc. World Conf. on Birds of Prey: Oct. 1-3, 1975. Vienna,
Austria. International Council for Bird Preservation. Great
Britain. Pp. 222-228.
22 White, C.M. 1974. Hunting range of a breeding peregrine falcon on
Franklin Bluff, Sagananirktok River. Typed report on file at:
USFWS, Anchorage, AK. 5 pp.
23 Enderson, J.H. and M.N. Kirven. 1983. Flights of nesting
peregrine falcons recorded by telemetry. Raptor Research 17:33-37.
24 Enderson, J.H. 1965. A breeding and migration survey of the
peregrine falcon. Wilson Bull. 77:327-339.
25 Mindell, D.P. 1983. Pers. comm. Brigham Young Univ., Zoology
Dept., Provo, UT.
26 White, C.M. 1983. Pers. comm. Brigham Young Univ., Zoology
Dept., Provo, UT.
27 Dekker, D. 1979. Characteristics of peregrine falcons migrating
through Central Alberta, 1969-1978. Canadian Field Nat.
93:296-302.
28 Ward, F.P. and R.B. Berry. 1972. Autumn migrations of peregrine
falcons on Assateague Island, 1970-71. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36:484-492.
29 Hunt, W.G., R.R. Rogers, and D.J. Slowe. 1975. Migratory and
foraging behavior of peregrine falcons on the Texas coast.
Canadian Field Nat. 89:111-123.
30 Henny, C.J. and W.S. Clark. 1982. Measurements of fall migrant
peregrine falcons from Texas and New Jersey. J. Field Ornith.
53:326-332.
31 Maher, W.J. 1959. Habitat distribution of birds breeding along
the upper Kaolak River, northern Alaska. Condor 61:351-368.
32 Wrege, P. and T.J. Cade. 1977. Courtship behavior of large
falcons in captivity. Raptor Research 11:1-27.
33 White, C.M. 1966, 1969, 1970. Field notes. Brigham Young Univ.,
Zoology Dept., Provo, UT.
34 Cade, T.J. 1982. Pers. comm. Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell
Univ., Ithaca, NY.
35 Cade, T.J., J.D. Weaver, and J.B. Platt. 1977. Propagation of
large falcons in captivity. Raptor Research 11:28-46.
36 Sherrod, S.K. 1983. Behavior in fledgling peregrines. The
Peregrine Fund, Inc., Ithaca, NY.
37 White, C.M., S.G. Pruett-Jones, and W.B. Emison. 1981. The status
and distribution of the peregrine falcon in Victoria, Australia.
Emu (supplement) 80:270-280.
38 Porter, R.D. and C.M. White. 1973. The peregrine falcon in Utah,
emphasizing ecology and competition with the prairie falcon.
Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. Biol. Ser. 18(1):1-74.
39 Newton, I. 1982. Pers. comm. Institute for Terrestrial Ecology,
Monks Wood Experimental Station, Huntingdon, England.
40 Manning, T.H., E.O. Hohn, and A.H. Macpherson. 1956. The birds of
Banks Island. Natl. Mus. Can. Bull. 143:1-144.
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, ARCTIC
Species Id ESIS107002
Date 14 MAR 96
*****REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY*****
01 Brown, L. and D. Amadon. 1968. Eagles, hawks and falcons of the
world, vol. 2. Country Life Books, London.
02 Cade, T.J. 1982. The falcons of the world. Cornell Univ. Press,
Ithaca, NY.
03 Fyfe, R.W., S.A. Temple, and T.J. Cade. 1976. The 1975 North
American peregrine falcon survey. Canadian Field Nat. 90:228-273.
04 Hickey, J.J., editor. 1969. Peregrine falcon populations: their
biology and decline. Univ. Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI.
05 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the
Peregrine Falcon-Alaska Population. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Anchorage, AK. 69 pp.
06 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1979. Recovery Plan for the
Peregrine Falcon-Eastern Population. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Newton Corner, MA.
07 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1977. Recovery Plan for the
Peregrine Falcon-Southwestern Population. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Albuquerque, NM.
08 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the
Peregrine Falcon-Pacific Population. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Portland, OR.
09 White, C.M. 1968. Biosystematics of the North American peregrine
falcon. Ph.D. Diss. Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT. 195 pp.
10 White, C.M. 1968. Diagnosis and relationship of the North
American tundra-inhabiting peregrine falcons. Auk 85:179-191.
11 White, C.M. and T.J. Cade. 1975. Raptor studies along the
proposed Susitna powerline corridors, oil pipeline and in the Yukon
and Colville River regions of Alaska. Typed report on file at:
USFWS and BLM, Anchorage, AK.
12 Swem, T., B. Dettrick, and J. Silva. 1982. Results of the 1982
raptor survey within the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. Typed
report on file at: USFWS, Endangered Species Office, Anchorage, AK.
13 Ritchie, R.J. 1982. Peregrine falcon surveys of selected areas
along the upper Tanana and Sagavanirktok River, Alaska. Typed
report on file at: USFWS, Office of Endangered Species, Anchorage,
AK.
14 Ambrose, R. 1987. Pers. comm. USFWS, Endangered Species Off.,
Anchorage, AK.
References - 3