(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - CURLEW, ESKIMO
OTHER COMMON NAMES - CURLEW, ESKIMO; CURLEW, CHITTERING; CURLEW, ESQUIMAUX; CURLEW, ESQUIMAUX, SMALL; CURLEW, ESKIMO, SMALLER;CURLEW, LABRADOR; CURLEW, SHIVERING; CURLEW; AKPINGAK; BIRDS, GALLOU; CHORLO POLAR; CHORLO CAMPINO; CHORLO GRANDE; C'LEW; CORBEGEOS; CORBIGEAU DES ESQUIMAUX;DOUGH-BIRD; FUTE; GUILBUEACH; LE COURLIS DES ESQUIMAUX; LE COURLIS DU NORD; PI-PI-PI-UK;PIGEON, PRAIRIE;SANDPIPER, CURLEW; SICKLEBILL, LITTLE; TURA-TURA; WEEKEMENEW; WHIMBREL and ESKIMO; ZARAPITO BOREAL;ZARAPITO ESQUIMAL
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CHARADRIIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - SCOLOPACIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - NUMENIUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - BOREALIS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - NUMENIUS BOREALIS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Eskimo Curlew
Numenius borealis (Forster, 1772)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Charadriiformes FAMILY: Scolopacidae
The Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis Forster, 1772, is a
medium-sized shorebird (about 30 cm long) with a slender, slightly
downcurved bill; dark crown and rather indistinct pale crownstripe;
cinnamon tone above with whole underparts washed cinnamon; heavy
v-shaped black marks and barring on breast and flanks; underwings and
axillaries bright cinnamon with brown barrings; and legs bluish-grey
with reticulated scales posteriorly (01,02,03,04,05,06,07,08,16).
N. borealis is the smallest of the North American curlews and only
slightly larger than the little curlew (N. minutus), itself the
smallest member of the genus and the only species likely to be
confused with N. borealis. Several recent comparisons have been made
between N. borealis and N. minutus (01,06,08,09). At least two
sources (10,11) consider these two species of curlews to be
conspecific, but most others (02,09,12) recognize each as monotypic.
Some authors (in 01; and 09) have proposed that these two species of
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
curlews be merged under the genus Mesoscolopax.
The species taxonomic history is summarized as follows:
Scolopax borealis Forster, 1772
Numenius borealis Latham, 1790
Numenius brevirostris Lichtenstein, 1823
Numenius hudsonicus Peabody, 1839
Numenius microrhynchus Philippi & Landbeck, 1866
Numenius borealis AOU, 1886
Mesoscolopax borealis Ridgway, 1919
Phaeopus borealis AOU, 1931
Numenius borealis AOU, 1957
Biometric data for the Eskimo curlew are limited, with no one
source having presented data for more than five individuals. For this
reason the following represent ranges of measurements for adults from
several sources (01,03,06,07,13): wing (males 198.1-220.0 mm,
females 189.5-226.0 mm); culmen (males 48.0-53.6, females 47.0-58.0
mm); tarsus (males 39.5-45.0 mm, females 41.0-46.5 mm). As with many
shorebirds, particularly curlews (02), the Eskimo curlew exhibits a
size dimorphism between sexes, with females averaging slightly larger.
This dimorphism is probably significant between sexes within a pair
and may be so between sexes within the population.
The species has acquired over 40 common names throughout its
range, with dough bird (and its various spellings) being the most
common English name. The common names have recently been summarized
by Gollop et al., 1986 (01). Below is the list of common names and
area of origin (in parenthesis) from Gollop et al., 1986.
Akpingak (Labrador)
Akpingek (Labrador)
Akpingik (Labrador)
Akpingit (Labrador)
Chittering culew (Lesser Antilles, Barbados)
Chorlo polar (Argentina)
Chorlo campino (Argentina)
Chorlo grande (Argentina)
C'lew (Labrador)
Corbegeos (French Canada)
Corbigeau (Quebec)
Corbigeau des esquimaux (French Canada)
Curlew (Labrador)
Curlew sandpiper (Texas)
Doe-bird (Maine, Massachusetts, New York)
Dough bird (Labrador)
Doughbird (New England, Nova Scotia)
Dough-bird (Massachusetts, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia)
Eskimaux curlew (Hudson Bay)
Eskimo-Brachvogel (Germany)
Eskimobrachvogel (Germany)
Esquimaux curlew (Canada, Bermuda)
Esquimaux curlew = Whimbrel (North America)
Esquimaux-curlew (Hudson Bay)
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
Eskimo Whimbrel (General)
Eskimo curlew (North America)
Fute (New York)
Gallou birds (Labrador)
Guilbueach (Nova Scotia)
Labrador curlew (Labrador)
Le courlis des Esquimaux (Canada)
Le Courlis esquimau (Canada)
Le Courlis du nord (Quebec)
Little sicklebill (Ontario)
Narcejas (Brazil)
Pi-pi-pi-uk (Alaska (Eskimo))
Prairie pigeon (Midwest U.S.A.)
Shivering curlew (Lesser Antilles)
Small curlew (Grenada)
Small Esquimaux curlew (North America)
Smaller Esquimaux curlew (North America)
Swiftwings (Ungave (Nascopie))
Tura-tura (Pt. Barrow (Eskimo))
Weekee-meneesew (Northwest Territories (Cree))
Weekemenew (Hudson Bay)
Wee-kee-me-nase-su (Hudson Bay)
We-Ke-wa-ne-so (Hudson Bay (Ontario))
Wood snipe (Bermuda)
Zarapito boreal (Chile)
Zarapito esquimal (Spanish)
Zarapito polar (Spanish)
Physical descriptions of the Eskimo curlew appear in many sources
(01,02,03,04,05,06,08,16) and photographs have been published in
several sources (01,05,14,15,17). Museums housing the largest numbers
of skins and egg sets of the Eskimo curlew include: British Museum of
Natural History, Tring; American Museum of Natural History, New York;
Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard, Cambridge; U.S. National
Museum, Washington, D.C.; and Chicago National History Museum,
Chicago.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Arkansas; Federal Endangered
Florida; Federal Endangered
Florida; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Endangered
Louisiana; State Recognized
Maryland; Federal Endangered
Maryland; State Recognized
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
Coded Status
South Carolina; Federal Endangered
South Carolina; State Listed
E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory
Commercial
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found including the
State of Alaska and from Northern Canada to Argentina.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
The species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) (50 CFR 10.13).
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Alaska, Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts,
Nebraska, New York, Oklahoma, South Carolina,
South Dakota, and Texas.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: AK, Department of Fish and Game
AR, Game and Fish Commission
IL, Department of Conservation
KS, Fish and Game Commission
MA, Division of Fish and Wildlife
NE, Game and Parks Commission
NY, Dept. of Environmental Conservation
OK, Dept. of Wildlife and Conservation
SC, Wildlife and Marine Research Dept.
SD, Game, Fish and Parks Department
TX, Parks and Wildlife Department
STATE STATUTE: AK, Alaska Stats. 16.20.180 to 16.20.210.
AR, Var. Sec.s as auth. by amend. 35 to the
Constitution of Arkansas.
IL, Endg. Sp. Code, Admin. Order 138.
KS, Reg. through Kansas Nongame, Threatened or
Endangered Species, Article XVIII.
MA, Chapt. 131 Sec. 5, M.G.L. (protection),
Chapt. 131 Sec. 4, 13A (listing).
NE, Rev. Stats. NE Article 37, Sec. 430-438.
NY, N.Y. Code Rules & Regulations 182.5
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
OK, Title 29 OK Stat., Sec. 7-502, Sec. 5-406
SC, Regulations 123-150
SD, SD Codified Laws 41-2-32, 41-2-18, 34A-83
TX, TX Admin. Code 57.131 to 57.136
(127.30.90.001 to 127.30.09.006); Vernon TX
Code Annot., TX Parks & Wildl. Code 68.001 to
68.021.
STATE: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Indiana,
Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri,
New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin,
and Wyoming.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: CA, Fish & Game Comm., Dept. of Fish &
Game
CO, Wildlife Commission
CT, Department of Environ. Protection
FL, Game & Freshwater Fish Commission
IN, Department of Natural Resources
IA, Conservation Commission
LA, Wildlife and Fisheries Commission
ME, Department of Fisheries & Wildlife
MD, Department of Natural Resources
MN, Department of Natural Resources
MO, Conservation Commission
NJ, Division Fish, Game, and Wildl.
OH, Department of Natural Resources
PA, Game Commission
RI, Dept. of Environmental Management
WI, Department of Natural Resources
WY, Game and Fish Commission
STATE STATUTES: CA, Fish & Game Code 2000, 2002, 2052, 3005.5,
3504, 3513.
CO, CO Revised Statutes 33-8-103(4)
CT, CT Gen. Stat. Annotated 26-40d, 26-40e
FL, FL Stat. 370.02, 370.021, and Art. IV, Sec.
9, Constit. of State of FL
IN, IN Statutes Annot. 14-2-8.5-2 to 14-2-8.5-13
IA, IA Code Annotated 109A.6
LA, LA Statutes Annotated 56:1901 to 56:1907
MD, MD Nat. Res. Code Annot. 4-2A-01 to 4-2A-09;
10-2A-01 to 10-2A-09; Code of MD Regs.
08.03.01.43, Supp. 4
ME, ME Revised Stat. Annot. 7001, 7751-7756
MN, MN Stat. Annot. 97.40 to 101.26
MO, MO Revised Stat. 252.240; 3 CSR 10-4.111
NJ, NJ Admin. Code 7:25-11.2 to 7:25-20.2
OH, OH Admin. Code 1501:31-23-01
PA, 58 PA Code 147.1, 147.21
RI, General Laws of RI 20-37-1 to 20-37-5
WI, NR 27.03 WI Admin. Code (Oct. 1981)
WY, WY Stat. Annot. 23-1-101
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE: Michigan and New Mexico
DESIGNATED STATUS: Game Bird and Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: MI, Department of Natural Resources
NM, State Game Commission
STATE STATUTE: MI, MI Compiled Laws Annot. 311.6, 312.4, 312.5,
316.105; MI Pub. Act No. 203, 1974
NM, NM Stat. Annot. 17-2-1 to 17-2-7 and 17-2-37
to 17-2-46, Reg. No. 624.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis) is listed as endangered by
the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSWIC
1978). It is also listed on the Ontario Provincial List under Chapter
138 Revised Statutes Ontario, 1980. This species is included in the
Western Hemisphere Convention Annex by: (1) the United States
(endangered, 1970 revision); (2) Brazil - all members of the family
Scolopacidae listed as "I - Special Protection" (listed in 1941 but
does not appear on the 1967 revision); and (3) Listed as endangered in
Argentina (1967). The species is also listed as endangered by the
IUCN in Red Data Book and in Appendix I of CITES (50 CFR 23.23).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The Eskimo curlew is too rare to play a significant role in any
environment it now occupies. However, because of the species rarity,
any sightings are of extreme interest to the scientific and
conservation community, particularly bird-watchers. This species was
abundant prior to the 1800's and was harvested commercially in large
numbers and sold for food in many cities throughout the U.S. The
Eskimo curlew was also undoubtedly an important subsistence food item
for Eskimos and rural residents of Labrador, the Northwest
Territories, and Alaska. In addition to its food value, the Eskimo
curlew was a popular sport hunting bird that responded well to decoys
and provided excellent wing-shooting opportunities. The Eskimo curlew
was known to eat a variety of insects, many of which are known to be
destructive to agricultural practices. Some of these include ants,
Rocky Mountain grasshoppers, particularly egg pods, white grubs and
cut worms. Considering that the curlew was once so numerous that
their flocks darkened the sky, their predation on these destructive
insects likely was of benefit to 18th and 19th century agriculture in
the U.S. There are no known negative economic aspects of the Eskimo
curlew.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001/ - List as Endangered
70/06/02:35 FR 08491/08498 - List as Endangered
77/02/22:42 FR 10462/10488 - Implementation of Convention (CITES)
79/02/15:44 FR 09928/ - Supplement, M.Bird Hunting Reg's
80/06/10:45 FR 39317/ - M.Bird Hunting Stamp Contest Rules
81/09/14:46 FR 44660/ - Publication of CITES
83/04/05:48 FR 14700/ - M.Bird Hunting Reg's
83/07/27:48 FR 34182/ - Republication of T/E List
84/03/23:49 FR 11120/ - M.Bird Hunting Reg's
84/06/05:49 FR 23197/ - Listed as a unique species
Status - 5 (DRAFT) - Status
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five year review
Status - 6 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
COASTAL
LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Herbaceous Rangeland
Bays and Estuaries
Nonforested Wetland
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Tundra Land: Herbaceous
Tundra Land: Mixed
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Palustrine EM1
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal FL3
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The nesting grounds of the Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis) are
known only from MacFarlane's collections between 1862 and 1866 along
the Anderson and Horton Rivers of the Bathurst Peninsula of the
Northwest Territories of Canada (01,28). Gollop et al. (01), who
recently (1980-84) retraced MacFarlane's collecting routes, provide
the best description to date of the nesting habitat of the species.
MacFarlane described his collection sites as "grassy meadows" which
Gollop et al. (01) found vegetated by Arctagrostis latifolia, Poa
arctica, P. glauca, Carex sp., Eriophorum sp., Dryas sp., Betula
glandulosa, and Salix sp. Furthermore, Gollop et al. (01) considered
all of these sites to be "uplands", i.e., from 180 m (600 feet) to
335 m (1100 feet) above sea level. The entire area where MacFarlane
collected and northward on the Bathurst Peninsula was unglaciated
during the Wisconsin ice age.
Upon leaving the breeding grounds the curlews flew southeast to
coastal habitats in Labrador (Hamilton Harbor to Red Bay) and the
northeastern United States. George Cartwright (in 01) wrote of Eskimo
curlews along the Labrador coast as "on some low hills, partly barren,
and the rest covered with small bad spruce-bushes, were many large
flocks of curlews feeding on the berries (Empetrum and Vaccinium),
which were plentiful there." Others (Berteau in 29) have described
the curlew in Labrador as "always staying out on the seashore, never
moving inland beyond a mile or two from the coast." Along the New
England seaboard the Eskimo curlew also favored coastal habitats. In
Massachusetts the species occurred on "sandy hills near the seashore,
... over old fields and pasture, often several miles from the shore,
... occasionally on to the dry salt marshes", and on "marshes and
adjoining pastures" of Massachusetts Bay (in 01). Recent sightings
(01) of the species in Massachusetts were of a bird(s) on the "upper
beach and dune grass" (Plymouth Beach) and in a "field of salt grass"
(Martha's Vineyard).
There is little specific information on habitat use by curlews on
Habitat Associations - 1 the wintering grounds; most accounts refer only to birds visiting the
extensive dry or wet pampas of Argentina, and possibly Uruguay,
southern Brazil and Chile (01). There is one reference (30) of
curlews "frequenting certain localities where the plains were most
open, bare, and dry; and exceedingly wild," and an occasional note of
curlews using "intertidal mudflats" in Argentina (01).
During spring migration in the past, the Eskimo curlew was known
to cross the interior of South America and probably Central America
before spreading out over the plains of the east central United
States. Prior to extensive conversion to agriculture in the late
1800's the curlew favored these tall grass prairies and their
associated wetlands. However, even after much of the prairies were
plowed under or burned of their cover, the curlew continued to
associate with the same areas, apparently adapted to the changes. The
most recent spring sightings (01,31) of the Eskimo curlew include
birds seen in Texas "...over a wide area of sand flats, shallow ponds,
and grassy patches," "...in a 200-acre grassy pasture," "...in well
drained and gently rolling (pasture), with grass about three to four
inches high," and a flock of 23 birds "standing on a grassy spit that
separated the bay (Galveston) from the interior salt marsh."
The extant population of Eskimo curlews is probably so small that
existing habitats throughout the birds' range are probably adequate
and not limiting.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Worms
General Vascular Plants-Emergent Nonwoody
General Deciduous Shrubs-Flowers/Fruit/Seed
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Despite untold thousands of Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis)
stomachs that must have been looked at for their contents, there are
surprisingly few data pertaining to the food habits of this species.
On the breeding grounds and near the terminus of the spring migration,
ants (Formicidae), berries (Empetrum nigra and Vaccinium spp.), and
freshwater insects are the only reported foods of the curlew (01,18,
22,32,33). In the past, beginning in late July, the species was known
to migrate to coastal areas of Labrador and Newfoundland where it fed
extensively on Empetrum, but was also known to have fed on snails
associated with rocky intertidal areas (32). Other intertidal foods
included "sea lice" (21,22), fiddler crabs (Uca spp.), "bloodworms"
(Polychaeta), and other crustacea (34). South of the main staging
grounds in the New England states, the Eskimo curlew was reported to
have eaten field crickets (Gryllus and Nemobius) and grasshoppers
(Acrididae), and to a lesser extent beetles (Carabidae and
Scarabaeidae), spiders, moths, ants, earthworms (Oligochaeta), and
grass seeds (Hudsonia tomentosa and Digitaria spp.) (20,26,35,36).
From the wintering grounds there is apparently but one reference to
foods of the curlew, that being of "insects" being eaten in Argentina
(37). During the spring migration which historically occured through
South and Central America and north through the prairies of middle
North America, the Eskimo curlew was reported to have fed almost
exclusively on upland areas (both cultivated and uncultivated) where
eggs and larvae of the Rocky Mountain grasshopper (Melanoplus spretus)
and "white grubs and cutworms" were the preferred foods (01,27).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
No information is currently available, but like other congeners,
the Eskimo curlew was probably territorial during the nesting period
and may have been so while feeding during migration and while on the
wintering grounds. Its closest ally, the little curlew (Numenius
minutus), is territorial on the breeding grounds and nests in
"colonies" (09). Other authors (01) feel that the Eskimo curlew was
probably not colonial. However, this assumption was based on the only
information on the nesting ecology of the Eskimo curlew, knowledge
which is limited and from a comparatively small portion of the
suspected historical breeding range. Defense of the nesting territory
probably broke down as the young fledged and birds began to flock for
fall migration. In whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), the breeding
territory is no longer held once the young leave the nest, but an area
around the chicks is defended (13). In the past, during migration and
while on the wintering grounds, the Eskimo curlew was highly
gregarious, roosting and feeding in flocks of from several hundred to
several thousand birds (01,05,16).
PERIODICITY:
No information is available.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The Eskimo curlew had and probably still has one of the longest
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
and most complex migrations of any bird (note: there is no evidence
that the extant population has altered the timing or routes of its
migration). To date the best summary of the migration of the Eskimo
curlew appears in Gollop et al. (01). Beginning in July, birds would
begin flocking on the breeding grounds. The main group would then
move east across Hudson Bay and down the coast of Labrador. A lesser
number of birds were thought to have passed south of Hudson Bay before
they moved into the southern New England states. Based on an absence
of reports of the species between Alaska and Labrador (01), this leg
of their migration was apparently non-stop, a distance of over
2,400 km. Peak populations occurred along the Labrador and
Newfoundland coasts in August and September. The departure from these
areas occurred in late September and probably involved a non-stop
flight over the Atlantic Ocean which took the birds east of Bermuda.
Some birds made landfall in the Guianas, but there are few reports of
where the main body of migrants landed for the first time following a
flight of at least 4,000 to 5,000 km. Birds are known to have passed
through Brazil and Paraguay on their way to the main wintering grounds
in Argentina where the first birds usually arrived in September.
Spring migration began in late February or early March and
apparently proceeded north through western South America and Central
America. Birds then probably flew across the Gulf of Mexico to Texas
where they were common by March and early April. From there during
April and early May the migration occurred over a broad front
throughout the prairie states as far north as South Dakota (38). The
absence of records of this species in spring from North Dakota or
Saskatchewan suggests either an overflight to the breeding grounds
(3,200 km) or an absence of observers at the right time and place
through the 1800's.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
No information is available.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
No information is currently available on the nesting behavior or
displays of the Eskimo curlew. Nests are described as shallow
depressions scraped out on the surface of the tundra and lined with
dried leaves and grass (28). The only nests known to science were
discovered from treeless Arctic tundra in the MacKenzie District of
the Northwest Territories of Canada (01,28).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Little is known about the reproductive characteristics of the
Eskimo curlew. Like other curlews, they are probably monogamous (02).
The length of the pair bond is unknown, but in Numenius phaeopus it is
sustained for two or more years (39). Age at first breeding is also
unknown, but based on that of other curlews, it is probably two or
more years (02,40). Nesting is most likely solitary as in N. phaeopus
and N. arquata (01,02,28). However, in N. minutus, the closest ally
to N. borealis, nesting is colonial (09). Of the 28 clutches of
Eskimo curlew eggs in museums or collections, most are of four eggs.
Egg collection dates range from 8 June to 12 July with half of them
concentrated in the week of 18 June (01,23,28). The species probably
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
lays only one clutch, although like many other shorebirds (02)
clutches may be replaced if lost during early- to mid-incubation.
Incubation is probably the same for the Eskimo curlew as with its
congeners (02) in that it begins with the penultimate egg and both
sexes partake equally. The length of the incubation is unknown, but
in N. minutus it is 22-23 days (09), 27-29 days in N. arquata and N.
phaeopus (02), and 28 days in N. americanus (40). Peak hatching
probably occurs during the last week of June and first week of July
(01). The downy young of the species have never been described,
although MacFarlane (28) mentions having collected one about 5 July
and another on an unknown date in July.
PARENTAL CARE:
Little is known about parental care in the Eskimo curlew. Young
are precocial at hatching and probably nidifugous (28). As with other
curlews, both sexes probably care for the young, both in defense and
brooding. It is not known whether both parents remain with the young
until fledging, a period of 32-38 days in Numenius arquata (41,42),
35-40 days in N. phaeopus (39), and 41-45 days in N. americanus (42).
If they are like other curlews, adults (probably females first then
males) depart the breeding grounds before juveniles (01,02).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
There is no direct information on most parameters of the
population biology of the Eskimo curlew, including age-specific rates
of mortality, survival, longevity, sex ratio, turnover rate, and
population density, both past and present. However, several of these
can probably be inferred from information available on other species
of curlew. Numenius arquata, for example, has a reported mean annual
mortality rate of 53-66 percent in the first year, 26 percent in the
second year, and 26-28 percent in later years (41,42,43,44). The
oldest individual on record was 31 years old (45). N. phaeopus has an
annual mortality rate of 31 percent with the oldest banded bird
reported at 12 years old (46). Numenius americanus has a mean annual
mortality rate of 15 percent for adult birds (i.e., three or more
years old), with the average longevity predicted at 8-10 years (40).
Factors limiting the current population of N. borealis are unknown
(01,03,05,24).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
No information is available.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
No information is available.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse
Existing
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
There is overwhelming evidence that unregulated market hunting of
Eskimo curlews (Numenius borealis) drastically and rapidly reduced the
population between 1870 and 1890, especially during spring in the
midwestern prairie states, to a lesser degree in fall in Labrador, and
following severe storms on the coast of Massachusetts (which brought
curlews ashore there) (01,03,05,15,19,21,22,23,24). Other factors
that may have contributed to the Eskimo curlew's decline include
severe storms during their long over-ocean migration in fall (05,21,
22,25); habitat alteration (primarily to agriculture, which also
contributed to reduction of the bird's food supplies) on the wintering
grounds and over the spring migration route in the United States (09,
10,18,22,26), and a succession of unsuccessful breeding seasons caused
by unfavorable weather (05).
The proximate factor responsible for the rapid decline was the
tame nature and the gregarious behavior of the bird which made it
extremely easy to shoot (15,18,20,22,27). Banks (05) felt that the
continued failure of the species to recover after hunting of the
species in the United States was banned, must be attributed to some
unique charactersitic (social, biological, reproductive) that makes
the Eskimo curlew more vulnerable to adverse environmental conditions
than other shorebirds with similar migration, breeding, and wintering
ranges. That characteristic may be a greater concentration of members
of the population at all times, making it more vulnerable to short but
critical periods of unfavorable weather and habitat conditions.
Concurrent with the rapid population decline in the late 1800's was
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
the conversion of native grasslands to cultivation in both the main
wintering area and in southern South America (05,09,10) and also in
the principal migration route through the tall grass prairies of the
United States. The combination of these two factors may have been
sufficient to prevent the recovery of the population. Low numbers of
individuals is another factor in the current status of this species.
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
No Recovery Plan has yet been initiated nor is it likely that one
will be prepared unless a population of birds is found. At the
present time, our ability to prevent the extinction of or to improve
the dismal outlook for this species is very limited.
No approved or draft Recovery Plan exists for the Eskimo curlew
(Numenius borealis) primarily because of the extreme low numbers of
the species and lack of information regarding its current occurrence.
Should a small population be found, protection from disturbance and
predation (from red fox (Vulpes fulva), arctic fox (Alopex lagopus)
and/or parasitic jaegers (Stercorarius parasiticus)) may succeed in
preventing extinction and reversing current population trends.
Captive propagation for reintroduction to the wild, if proven
feasible, may benefit the species. Maintaining a sperm bank and/or
transplanting wild individuals also may be beneficial actions. Birds
found injured or sick should be rehabilitated. Land acquisition to
control adverse development of the curlew's habitat may be needed
should specific areas be identified as important to the curlew,
especially along the migration route. In the event of increased
numbers or sightings of Eskimo curlews, efforts to limit human access
to the birds may be needed. Educational programs would be helpful in
obtaining support for such an effort and would also increase the
number of potential sightings of the species. Hunter education would
be important to eliminate confusion with woodcock or snipe in order to
minimize this potential mortality factor. Controlling pesticide use
and other land use practices in the U.S., Canada, and in the wintering
grounds may be an important survival factor. The birds should be
protected from disturbance in both their wintering and breeding
grounds.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Gallop, J.B., T.W. Berry, and E.H. Iversen. 1986. Eskimo curlew.
A vanishing species? Spec. Publ. No. 17, Saskatchewan Nat. Hist.
Soc., Saskatchewan, Canada. 160 pp.
02 Cramp, S. 1983. Eskimo curlew. Pages 483-484. IN: Handbook of
the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The birds
of the Western Palearctic. Volume 3 - waders to gulls. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
03 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Selected vertebrate
endangered species of the seacoast of the United States - Eskimo
curlew. FWS/OBS-80/01.17. Washington, D.C. 7 pp.
04 Johnsgard, P.A. 1981. The plovers, sandpipers, and snipes of the
world. Univ. of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. 493 pp.
05 Banks, R.C. 1977. The decline and fall of the Eskimo curlew, or
Why did the curlew go extaille? Am. Bird. 31:127-134.
06 Prater, T., J. Marchant, and J. Vuorinen. 1977. Guide to the
identification and aging of Holarctic waders. Brit. Trust Ornith.,
Beech Grove, Tring, Herts. 168 pp.
07 Hayman, P., J. Marchant, and T. Prater. 1986. Shorebirds. A
field guide. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 412 pp.
08 Farrand, J., Jr. 1977. What to look for: Eskimo and little
curlews compared. Am. Bird. 31:137-139.
09 Labutin, Y.V., V.V. Leonovitch, and B.N. Veprintsev. 1982. The
little curlew Numenius minutus in Siberia. Ibis 124:302-319.
10 Dement'ev, G.P., and N.A. Gladkov eds. 1951. Birds of the Soviet
Union. Volume 3. Israel Program for Scientific Translations,
Jerusalem. (1969 translation). 756 pp.
11 Mayr, E. and L.L. Short. 1970. Species taxa of North American
birds. Nuttall Ornithological Club Publication 9. 127 pp.
12 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North
American birds, 6th ed. Washington, D.C. 877 pp.
13 Ridgeway, R. 1919. The birds of North and Middle America. Pt. 8.
U.S. Govt. Printing Off., Washington, D.C. 877 pp.
14 Bleitz, D. 1962. Photographing the Eskimo curlew. Western Bird
Bander 37:43-45.
15 Bleitz, D. 1962. Rare camera study: Eskimo curlew in '62.
Audubon 64:206.
16 Iverson, E.H. 1976. The Eskimo curlew. Unpubl. typescript on
file at: U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Endg. Sp. Sec., Anchorage, AK
99503. 157 pp.
17 Bond, J. 1965. Tenth supplement to the check-list of birds of the
West Indies (1956). Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, PA. 16 pp.
18 Bent, A.C. 1929. Life histories of North American shorebirds.
Pt. II. Smithsonian Institution U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 146.
Washington, D.C. Dover Reprint, New York. 1962. 412 pp.
19 Swenk, M.H. 1915. The Eskimo curlew and its disappearance. Proc.
Nebraska Ornith. Union 6:25-44.
20 Mackay, G.H. 1892. Habits of the Eskimo curlew (Numenius
borealis) in New England. Auk 9:16-21.
21 Forbush, E.H. 1912. A history of the game birds, wild-fowl and
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
shorebirds of Massachusetts and adjacent states. Wright and
Potter, Boston, MA.
22 Forbush, E.H. 1912. A history of the game birds, wild-fowl and
shorebirds of Massachusetts and adjacent states. Mass. Ste. Board
Agric., Boston, MA. 636 pp.
23 Gollop, J.B. and C.E.P. Shier. 1978. Status report on the Eskimo
curlew in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife
in Canada. 54 pp.
24 Greenway, J.C., Jr. 1958. Extinct and vanishing birds of the
world. American Committee for International Wildlife Protection,
New York. Special Publication 13. 518 pp.
25 Townsend, C.W. and G.M. Allen. 1907. Birds of Labrador. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc. 33:277-428.
26 Cooke, W.W. 1910. Distribution and migration of North American
shorebirds. U.S. Dept. Agric., Biol. Surv. Bull. 35. 100 pp.
27 Swenk, M.H. 1915. The Eskimo curlew and its disappearance.
Smithsonian Institution Annual Report 1915:325-340. Smithsonian
Institution Reprint with additions, Washington, D.C. 1916.
28 MacFarlane, R. 1891. Notes on and list of birds and eggs
collected in Arctic America, 1861-1866. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc.
14:413-446.
29 Carroll, W.J. 1910. The Eskimo curlew or doughbird. Forest and
Stream 74:372.
30 Gibson, E. 1920. Further ornithological notes from the
neighborhood of Cape San Antonio, Province of Buenos Ayres. Ibis
2:1-97.
31 Blankinship, D.R. and K.A. King. 1984. A probable sighting of 23
Eskimo curlews in Texas. Am. Bird. 38:1066-1067.
32 Coues, E. 1861. Notes on the ornithology of Labrador. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia Proc. 13:215-257.
33 Swainson, W. and J. Richardson. 1831. Fauna Boreali-Americana:
of the zoology of the northern parts of British America. Pt. II.
The birds. John Murray, London. 523 pp.
34 Hall, H.M. 1960. A gathering of shorebirds. R.C. Clement, ed.
Devin-Adair Company, New York. 242 pp.
35 Cottam, C. and P. Knappen. 1939. Food of some uncommon North
American birds. Auk 56:138-169.
36 Cottam, C., and P. Knappen. 1941. Eskimo curlew food note
corrected. Auk 58:256.
37 Murphy, R.C. 1936. Oceanic birds of South America. Vol. I.
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. 640 pp.
38 Coues, E. 1874. Birds of the Northwest: A handbook of the
ornithology of the region drained by the Missouri River and its
tributaries. Dept. of Interior, U.S. Geol. Surv. of the
Territories. Misc. Publ. 3. 791 pp.
39 Skeel, M.A. 1976. Nesting strategies and other aspects of the
breeding biology of whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) at Churchill,
Manitoba. M.Sc. diss., Dept. Zool., Univ. of Toronto, Canada.
40 Redmond, R.L. and D.A. Jenni. 1986. Population ecology of the
long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus) in Western Idaho. Auk
103:755-767.
41 Glutz von Blotzheim, U.N., K.M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel. 1975.
Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Pt. 6. Wiesbaden: Akademische
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species CURLEW, ESKIMO
Species Id ESIS107003
Date 14 MAR 96
Verlagsesellschaft.
42 Glutz von Blotzheim, U.N., K.M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel. 1977.
Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Pt. 7. Wiesbaden: Akademische
Verlagsesellschaft.
43 Allen, J.N. 1980. The ecology and behavior of the long-billed
curlew in southeastern Washington. Wildl. Monogr. No. 73.
44 Bainbridge, I.P. and C.D.T. Minton. 1978. The migration and
mortality of the curlew in Britian and Ireland. Bird Study
25:39-50.
45 Grenquist, P. 1965. Changes in abundance of some duck and seabird
populations off the coast of Finland 1949-1963. Finn. Game Res.
27:1-114.
46 Rydzewski, W. 1978. Longevity records V. The Ring 96-97:218-262.
47 Boyd, H. 1962. Mortality and fertility of European Charadrii.
Ibis 104:368-387.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Gallop, J.B., T.W. Berry, and E.H. Iversen. 1986. Eskimo curlew.
A vanishing species? Spec. Publ. No. 17, Saskatchewan Nat. Hist.
Soc., Saskatchewan, Canada. 160 pp.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Selected vertebrate
endangered species of the seacoast of the United States - Eskimo
curlew. FWS/OBS-80/01.17. Washington, D.C. 7 pp.
03 Banks, R.C. 1977. The decline and fall of the Eskimo curlew, or
why did the curlew go extaille? Am. Bird. 31:127-134.
04 American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of North
American birds. 5th edition. Am. Ornith. Union, Port City Press,
Baltimore, MD 691 pp.
05 American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North
American birds, 6th ed. Washington, D.C. 877 pp.
06 Gollop, J.B. and C.E.P. Shier. 1978. Status report on the Eskimo
curlew in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife
in Canada. 54 pp.
07 Blankinship, D.R. and K.A. King. 1984. A probable sighting of 23
Eskimo curlews in Texas. Am. Bird. 38:1066-1067.
08 Lahrman, F.W. 1972. A rare observation of the Eskimo curlew.
Blue Jay 30:87-88.
09 Daniels, G.G. 1972. Possible sight record of Eskimo curlew on
Martha's Vineyard, Mass. Am. Bird. 26:907-908.
10 Gill, R.E., Jr. 1986. Personal observation. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503.
References - 3