(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN

OTHER COMMON NAMES - FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN;FALCON, PEREGRINE;HAWK, DUCK;HAWK, FOOTED, GREAT-;PEREGRINE and ROCK;FALCON DE PATOS;HALCON PEREGUINO

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Birds

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AVES,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - FALCONIFORMES,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - FALCONIDAE,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - FALCO,

SPECIES AND SSP - PEREGRINUS, ANATUM

SCIENTIFIC NAME - FALCO PEREGRINUS ANATUM

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES -

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
American Peregrine Falcon

Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte, 1838

KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Bird

PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Aves
ORDER: Falconiformes FAMILY: Falconidae

Physical Description. In the population that formerly bred in
the eastern United States and southern Canada, adult specimens are,
on average, dark plumbeous-black above with much graying on the sides
and considerable rufus below with extensive spotting and barring. On
average, they lack a whitish forehead band, have broad malar stripes
and reduced amounts of white in the auricular area. Average immatures
have an overall rich, rufus wash. The feather edgings on the dorsum
are, if present, much reduced. Heads are usually dark with rufus
edgings. West of the Great Plains the birds are still smaller.
Average adults show a slight brownish cast to the dorsum. The light
gray wash on the sides and flanks is heavily suffused with rufus.
The spotting and barring below is generally not so dark as in birds
from the east but a larger proportion of them represent the lighter
extreme. Falcons from interior boreal Alaska are larger than those
of the west and similar in color but lack much of the brownish cast.
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

Variation in young is considerable. Those seen by Cade (1960) were
apparently characteristically pale, light headed birds (although some
dark headed birds were seen), while the average immature in 1966 was
phenotypically a rich pigmented dark headed bird.
Taxonomy. Worldwide from 12 to 22 races or subspecies of
peregrines have been described (49,99,115,122,139). Originally two
races or subspecies of the peregrine were recognized as breeding forms
in all of North America; the Peale's falcon, Falco peregrinus pealei
and the American peregrine falcon, F.p. anatum (04). A third race,
the tundra peregrine falcon, F.p. tundrius has yet to be officially
recognized by the A.O.U. committee on nomenclature. However, Peters
(100) lists the tundrius subspecies, and this subspecies has been
generally considered by managers as a convenient designation and is
recognized as a legal taxon. Manning et al. (144) postulated that
all lightly marked far northern peregrines belong to one holarctic
geographic race to which they apply the subspecific name leucogenys,
which most recent authors consider a synonym of calidus (134).
The American peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus anatum was
described by Bonaparte (19). The type specimen of anatum (number
67,848 in the Museum of Comparative Zoology) was collected at Great
Egg Harbor, New Jersey in December 1812 by A. Wilson (11). Two other
names have been applied to the anatum of North America, Falco
peregrinus naevius (66), and Falco peregrinus nigriceps. While
White (134) considers nigriceps a valid synonym of anatum, he feels
there is inadequate description and records to warrant considering
naevius a valid synonym. Falco peregrinus naevius (66) was based on
a description of Falco maculatus (25) which was in turn based on a
description of the spotted falcon, Falco tachete (48). See Friedman,
1950 (60) for a discussion of early synonomy of the peregrine.
Several common names have been utilized for the peregrine falcon.
Among the more common and persistent are the great-footed hawk (08,
138), duck hawk (15), rock peregrine (134), the current designation,
American peregrine falcon or peregrine falcon (79), Falcon de Patos
(Spanish - Puerto Rico), and Halcon pereguino (Spanish - Mexico).

Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

STATUS

Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Endangered
Alabama; State Listed
Alabama; Unofficially Listed

Arkansas; Federal Endangered
Arkansas; State Recognized

Florida; Federal Endangered
Florida; Officially Listed
Georgia; Federal Endangered
Georgia; State Listed

Kentucky; Federal Endangered
Kentucky; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Endangered
Louisiana; State Recognized

Maryland; Federal Endangered
Maryland; State Recognized

Mississippi; Federal Endangered
Mississippi; State Listed

Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

Coded Status

North Carolina; Federal Endangered
North Carolina; State Listed

South Carolina; Federal Endangered
South Carolina; State Listed

Tennessee; Federal Endangered
Tennessee; State Listed

Virginia; Federal Endangered
Virginia; State Listed

West Virginia; Federal Endangered
West Virginia; State Recognized
West Virginia; Unofficially Listed

Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

Coded Status

E: Federal Endangered
Federal Migratory

Commercial
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Non-consumptive recreational

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) has been
designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status wherever found
including from central Alaska across north-central Canada to central
Mexico and South America. All free-flying Falco peregrinus not
otherwise identifiable as a listed subspecies, are Endangered under
the "Similarity of Appearance" provisions of the Endangered Species
Act (50 CFR 17.50-17.52), in the 48 conterminous States. Critical
Habitat has been designated for this subspecies in areas of land,
water, and airspace in the Counties of Lake, Napa, and Sonoma, CA
(50 CFR 17.95(b)).
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act
(16 U.S.C. 703-711 et seq.) under Falco peregrinus (50 CFR 10.13).
This subspecies is covered under the raptor exemption (50 CFR 17.7)
and falconry propagation provisions of 50 CFR 21.28 - 21.30 for
special purpose permits.

RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:

USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

law enforcement/protection of this species.

BIA, BLM, DOD, DOE, NPS, and USFS:

All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.

STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:

DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AL) Dept. of Conserv. and Nat. Resourc./Reg. 87-GF-7/Nongame;
(AK) Dept. of Fish and Game/ Stat. 16.20.180 to 16.20.210;
(CA) California Fish and Game Comm./ California Fish and
Game Code, Sec. 2052;
(CO) Div. of Wildl./ CO Rev. Stat., Sec. 33-8-103(4);
(CT) Dept. of Environ. Protection/ CT Gen. Stat. Annot., Sec.
26-40d and 26-40e;
(FL) Game and Freshwater Fish Comm./ Rule 39-27.03 FL Admin.
Code, July 1983;
(GA) Game and Fish Div./ Rules and Regs. of the State of Georgia,
Sec. 391-4-13-.09, Jan. 11, 1981;
(ID) Dept. of Fish and Game/ Idaho Code, Sec. 36-103;
(IL) Dept. of Conserv./ 17 Ill. Admin. Code 1010.30, Feb. 1982;
(IA) Div. of Fish and Game/ IA Admin. Code 290-19.1, Sept. 1977;
(KS) Fish and Game Comm./ KS Admin. Regs. 23-17-1, May 1980;
(MA) Div. of Fisheries and Wildl./ MA Gen. Laws Annot. 131, Sec.
26A;
(MI) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MI Compiled Laws Annot., Sec. 299.221 to
299.230, MI Admin. Code 299.1021 to .1028, Feb. 1983;
(MN) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MN Code of Ag. Rules, Sec. 1.5600 to
1.5601, Eff. Dec. 1, 1983;
(MS) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ MS Public Notice No. 2156, Eff.
Sept. 1, 1981;
(MT) Dept. of Fish, Wildl., and Parks/ MT Code Annot. 87-5-101 to
112, MT Admin. Register 12.5.201;
(NE) Game and Parks Comm./ NE Admin. Rules and Regs., Vol. 13,
6-(4) 1984, Rev. Stat. of NE, Sec. 37-430 to 438;
(NV) Dept. of Wildl./ NV Admin. Code, Sec. 503.015 to 503.080,
Dec. 21, 1981;
(NH) Fish and Game Dept./ NH Code of Admin. Rules Fis. 1001.01,
1001.02, Eff. Apr. 28, 1980;
(NJ) Dept. of Environ. Protection, Div. of Fish, Game and Wildl./
NJ Admin. Code 7:25-11.2, Eff. Mar. 29, 1979;
(NM) Dept. of Game and Fish/ NM Reg. No. 624, Eff. July 22, 1983;
(NY) Dept. of Environ. Conserv./ 6 NY Code, Rules and Regs.
182.5, Apr. 30, 1983;
(NC) Wildl. Resources Comm./ 15 NC Admin. Code 10 I .0003, Eff.
July 28, 1979;
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

(OH) Dept. of Nat. Res., Div. of Wildl./ OH Admin. Code
1501:31-23-01, Eff. July 11, 1980;
(OR) Dept. of Fish and Wildl./ OR Rev. Stat. 498.026;
(SC) Wildl. and Marine Resources Dept./ SC Regs. 123-150;
(SD) Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks/ Admin. Rules of SD 41:10:02,
Eff. Mar. 16, 1978;
(TN) Wildl. Resources Ag./ TN Wildl. Procedures No. 75-15, as
amended, Dec. 8, 1978;
(TX) Parks and Wildl. Dept./ 31 TX Admin. Code Sec. 57.133
(127.30.09.003), July 1977;
(VT) Fish and Game Dept./ VT Regs. Annot. 13-79.1, July 1, 1975;
(VA) Comm. of Game and Inland Fisheries/ Code of VA Sec. 29-230
to 29-237;
(WA) Dept. of Game/ WA Admin. Code 232-12-014, June 1, 1981;
(WI) Dept. of Nat. Res./ NR 27.03 WI Admin. Code, Eff. Oct.,
1981.

DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered.
STATE/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY/STATE STATUTES:
(AZ) Game and Fish Dept./ AZ Rev. Stat., Sec. 17-101;
(AR) Game and Fish Comm./ AR Stat., Sec. 47-101, 47-117, 47-118,
and 47-119;
(DE) Dept. of Nat. Res. and Environ. Control/ 7 DE Code Annot.,
Sec. 601;
(IN) Div. of Fish and Wildl./ IN Stat. Annot., Sec. 14-2-8.5-1,
310 IN Admin. Code 3-3-6;
(KY) Dept. of Fish and Wildl. Resources/ KY Rev. Stat. 150.183,
301 KY Admin. Reg. 3:061;
(LA) Wildl. and Fisheries Comm./ LA Stat. Annot. 56:1901 to
56:1907;
(ME) Dept. of Inland Fisheries and Wildl./ ME Rev. Stat.
Annot., Sec. 7001, 7751-7756;
(MD) Dept. of Nat. Res./ MD Nat. Res. Code Annot., Sec. 4-2A-01
to 4-2A-09, 10-2A-01 to 10-2A-09, Code MD Regs. 08.03.01.43,
Supp. 4;
(MO) Dept. of Conserv./ MO Rev. Stat. 252.240, 3 Wildl. Code of
MO 10-4.111, Eff. Jan. 1, 1983;
(ND) Game and Fish Dept./ ND Century Code 20.1-10-02 and
20.1-02-05;
(OK) Dept. of Wildl. Conserv./ 29 OK Stat. Annot., Sec. 2-109,
2-135, 7-501, 7-502, 7-504, and 7-602;
(PA) Game Comm./ 58 PA Code Sec. 147.1, 147.21, Mar. 1983;
(RI) Dept. of Environ. Management/ Gen. Laws of RI Sec. 20-37-1
to 20-37-5;
(UT) Dept. of Nat. Res./ UT Code Annot. 23-13-2 to 23-13-4;
(WV) Dept. of Nat. Res./ WV Code, Sec. 20-7-7(1), WV Code, Sec.
20-1-1;
(WY) Game and Fish Dept./ WY Stat. Annot., Sec. 23-1-302.

STATE: Alabama, West Virginia
UNOFFICIAL LIST: Endangered; (AL) 1) Endangered and Threatened
Plants and Animals of Alabama. AL Mus. of Nat.
Hist., Bull. No. 2, 1976, Univ. of AL;
Status - 5 (DRAFT) - Status
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

2) Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of
Special Attention. AL Agri. Exp. Sta., Auburn
Univ., April 1986.
(WV) Special Animal List, Wildl. Resources
Div., West Virginia Dept. of Nat. Res.

INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is listed in Appendix I
of CITES, and the American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)
is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red Data Book, 1979.
The peregrine falcon is classified as Threatened in Canada by the
Comm. on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (April 1985).
Raptors are not included under Canada's Migratory Bird Conv. Act.
Most Provinces and Territories have Fish and Wildlife Acts protecting
raptors. Ontario and New Brunswick maintain an Endangered list which
includes the peregrine. The peregrine falcon is listed by Mexico in
Especies de Fauna en Peligro de Extincion en Mexico, 1982.
The family Falconidae (Gaviao) is listed by Brazil (1941 -
Special Protection) and the subspecies (anatum) is listed by the U.S.
(1967 - Rare) in the Convention on Nature Preservation and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere Annex (1970 publication).

ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Positive values: (1) sensitive indicator of certain environmental
pollutants; (2) high aesthetic value to many people especially bird
watchers; (3) highly prized for falconry purposes.
Negative values: (1) preys on some bird species taken by humans
for food and recreation; (2) occasionally preys on domesticated birds.

Status - 6 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
INLAND AQUATIC
COASTAL

Habitat Associations - 1 SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTRY TYPES
SAF TYPE STAGE CLOSURE
Aspen-paper birch shrub--seedling
Aspen-paper birch young tree
Aspen-paper birch mature tree
Aspen-paper birch Old Growth
Douglas-fir-western hemlock shrub--seedling
Douglas-fir-western hemlock young tree
Douglas-fir-western hemlock mature tree
Douglas-fir-western hemlock Old Growth
Interior Ponderosa Pine shrub--seedling
Interior Ponderosa Pine young tree
Interior Ponderosa Pine mature tree
Interior Ponderosa Pine Old Growth
Western white pine shrub--seedling
Western white pine young tree
Western white pine mature tree
Western white pine Old Growth
shrub--seedling
young tree
mature tree
Old Growth
Sitka spruce-western hemlock shrub--seedling
Sitka spruce-western hemlock young tree
Sitka spruce-western hemlock mature tree
Sitka spruce-western hemlock Old Growth
Western larch shrub--seedling
Western larch young tree
Western larch mature tree
Western larch Old Growth
Lodgepole pine shrub--seedling
Lodgepole pine young tree
Lodgepole pine mature tree
Lodgepole pine Old Growth
Redwood shrub--seedling
Redwood young tree
Redwood mature tree
Redwood Old Growth
shrub--seedling
young tree
mature tree
Old Growth
shrub--seedling
young tree
mature tree
Old Growth
White spruce-birch shrub--seedling
White spruce-birch young tree
White spruce-birch mature tree
White spruce-birch Old Growth

LAND USE -
Residential
Commercial and Services
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and Util
Habitat Associations - 2 LAND USE -
Industrial and Commercial Complexes
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land

Herbaceous Rangeland
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Mixed Rangeland
Deciduous Forest Land
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Dry Salt Flats
Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
Strip Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits
Transitional Areas
Mixed Barren Land
Tundra Land: Shrub Brush
Tundra Land: Herbaceous
Tundra Land: Wet
Tundra Land: Mixed

NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES

NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC

Riverine, intermittent UB4
Riverine, intermittent UB3
Riverine, intermittent UB2
Riverine, intermittent UB1
Riverine, intermittent SB4
Riverine, intermittent SB3
Riverine, intermittent SB2
Riverine, intermittent SB1
Riverine, intermittent RS2
Riverine, intermittent RS1
Riverine, intermittent RB2
Riverine, intermittent RB1
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, intermittent FL6
Riverine, intermittent FL5
Riverine, intermittent FL4
Riverine, intermittent FL3
Riverine, intermittent FL2
Riverine, intermittent FL1
Riverine, intermittent BB2
Riverine, intermittent BB1
Riverine, intermittent AB5
Riverine, intermittent AB4
Riverine, intermittent AB3
Riverine, intermittent AB2
Riverine, intermittent AB1
Riverine, upper perennial SB4
Riverine, upper perennial SB3
Riverine, upper perennial SB2
Habitat Associations - 3
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial SB1
Riverine, upper perennial RS2
Riverine, upper perennial RS1
Riverine, upper perennial RB2
Riverine, upper perennial RB1
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Riverine, upper perennial FL6
Riverine, upper perennial FL5
Riverine, upper perennial FL4
Riverine, upper perennial FL3
Riverine, upper perennial FL2
Riverine, upper perennial FL1
Riverine, upper perennial BB2
Riverine, upper perennial BB1
Riverine, upper perennial AB5
Riverine, upper perennial AB4
Riverine, upper perennial AB3
Riverine, upper perennial AB2
Riverine, upper perennial AB1
Riverine, upper perennial
Riverine, lower perennial SB4
Riverine, lower perennial SB3
Riverine, lower perennial SB2
Riverine, lower perennial SB1
Riverine, lower perennial RS2
Riverine, lower perennial RS1
Riverine, lower perennial RB2
Riverine, lower perennial RB1
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, lower perennial FL6
Riverine, lower perennial FL5
Riverine, lower perennial FL4
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial EM4
Riverine, lower perennial EM3
Riverine, lower perennial EM2
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, lower perennial AB5
Riverine, lower perennial AB4
Riverine, lower perennial AB3
Riverine, lower perennial AB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB1
Riverine, lower perennial
Riverine, tidal SB4
Riverine, tidal SB3
Riverine, tidal SB2
Riverine, tidal SB1
Riverine, tidal RS2
Riverine, tidal RS1
Riverine, tidal RB2
Riverine, tidal RB1
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal FL6
Riverine, tidal FL5
Riverine, tidal FL4
Riverine, tidal FL3
Habitat Associations - 4
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal EM4
Riverine, tidal EM3
Riverine, tidal EM2
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal BB1
Riverine, tidal AB5
Riverine, tidal AB4
Riverine, tidal AB3
Riverine, tidal AB2
Riverine, tidal AB1
Riverine, tidal
Lacustrine, littoral UB4
Lacustrine, littoral UB3
Lacustrine, littoral UB2
Lacustrine, littoral UB1
Lacustrine, littoral RS2
Lacustrine, littoral RS1
Lacustrine, littoral RB2
Lacustrine, littoral RB1
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral FL6
Lacustrine, littoral FL5
Lacustrine, littoral FL4
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Lacustrine, littoral EM4
Lacustrine, littoral EM3
Lacustrine, littoral EM2
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Lacustrine, littoral AB5
Lacustrine, littoral AB4
Lacustrine, littoral AB3
Lacustrine, littoral AB2
Lacustrine, littoral AB1
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic AB5
Lacustrine, limnetic AB4
Lacustrine, limnetic AB3
Lacustrine, limnetic AB2
Lacustrine, limnetic AB1
Lacustrine, limnetic
Palustrine UB4
Palustrine UB3
Palustrine UB2
Palustrine UB1
Palustrine SS7
Palustrine SS6
Palustrine SS4
Palustrine SS3
Palustrine SS2
Palustrine SS1
Palustrine RB2
Palustrine RB1
Palustrine OW0
Palustrine ML2
Habitat Associations - 5
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Palustrine ML1
Palustrine FO7
Palustrine FO6
Palustrine FO5
Palustrine FO4
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine FO2
Palustrine FO1
Palustrine FL6
Palustrine FL5
Palustrine FL4
Palustrine FL3
Palustrine FL2
Palustrine FL1
Palustrine EM6
Palustrine EM5
Palustrine EM4
Palustrine EM3
Palustrine EM2
Palustrine EM1
Palustrine AB5
Palustrine AB4
Palustrine AB3
Palustrine AB2
Palustrine AB1
Estuarine, intertidal SS7
Estuarine, intertidal SS6
Estuarine, intertidal SS5
Estuarine, intertidal SS4
Estuarine, intertidal SS3
Estuarine, intertidal SS1
Estuarine, intertidal SB3
Estuarine, intertidal SB2
Estuarine, intertidal SB1
Estuarine, intertidal RS3
Estuarine, intertidal RS2
Estuarine, intertidal RS1
Estuarine, intertidal RF3
Estuarine, intertidal RF2
Estuarine, intertidal FO7
Estuarine, intertidal FO6
Estuarine, intertidal FO5
Estuarine, intertidal FO4
Estuarine, intertidal FO3
Estuarine, intertidal FO1
Estuarine, intertidal FL6
Estuarine, intertidal FL5
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal
Marine, intertidal RS3
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal RS1
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal FL3
Habitat Associations - 6
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
In North America, the peregrine is catholic in its distribution,
breeding over a wide range of environmental conditions and
frequenting all major habitat types. It prefers nesting on rocky
craigs and cliffs in mountainous areas of river gorges, generally
associated with water (21,33,38,77,104).
In the U.S., peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus anatum, almost
exclusively nest on rocky cliffs of varying sizes in mountainous
areas of river gorges, usually associated with water (15,21,33,119,
120,121). Tree nesting has been infrequently recorded in Alaska (44,
135), in large trees along rivers of the Great Plains (30,67,105),
and in the southeast (13,64,101,112). Similarly, the use of tree
nests built by other large birds has seldom been observed in this
country (01,14,83,98), and ground or cutback nests have been rarely
used (41,45,72). Manmade structures such as unfinished bridge piers,
bridges, skyscrapers (39,42,68,70,75,79), an electric tower (79), and
abandoned stone quarries in isolated areas (76) have all been
documented as breeding sites in North America for peregrines.
In Alaska, the anatum is generally associated with riparian
habitat of the major river drainages (33,119). Nesting occurs on
cliffs in the vicinity of the rivers, and the birds frequently forage
over wide areas along these watercourses in search of prey. Forest
association in the vicinity of these eyrie sites vary from deciduous
to coniferous to mixed forest land. Wetlands, both forested and
muskeg bog, islands, shrub thickets, spruce-birch, and open-low
growing spruce, as well as exposed rock, characterize typical
peregrine habitat in Alaska with few eyries being recorded over 2,500
feet in boreal latitudes (03,33,119).
In the Rocky Mountain-Southwest population, most of the
remaining pairs of peregrines are near pinyon-juniper woodlands or
Ponderosa pine forests. In Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, eyries are
located over a very wide range of vegetation types ranging from
Montane coniferous forests to Mohave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts
(49,82,109). Formerly peregrines nested on cliffs in most of the
regions plant communities at elevations from less than 1,000 feet to
over 9,000 feet. Elevations between 4,500 feet and 8,000 feet are
preferred and nesting above 9,000 feet is rare (49,57,109,121).
Peregrines have been observed to travel up to 28 km from their
nesting cliffs to reach preferred foraging areas, i.e., marshes,
lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, forests, grass and agricultural
croplands (102,121).
In California, peregrines utilize all major habitat types and
plant community age classes. Breeding and foraging birds have been
recored in riparian, inland aquatic, coastal, estuarine and
terrestrial habitats, while favorite foraging areas are urban,
agricultural, range and forest lands. Peregrines frequent the
off-shore islands preying on pelagic species in what might be
considered an oceanic environment. Large metropolitan areas, as well
as coastal and mountain craigs up to 10,000 feet, are also utilized
for breeding and foraging (124).
Elsewhere on the Pacific Coast in Washington and Oregon, the few
Habitat Associations - 7 remaining breeding pairs are predominantly found in association with
coastal, marine, and riverine habitat comprised largely of evergreen
and mixed forest stands (27,47).
Migrant and wintering falcons are well known for frequenting
coastal, estuaries and intertidal mudflats (05,07,15,22,52,81,125),
where they prey heavily on shorebirds and waterfowl (05,06,49,131).
In addition, wintering peregrines, many of which are believed to be
anatum, frequent large cities primarily in the southern portion of
their range (51,124).
The peregrine displays a marked intolerance to human activity
within close proximity to its eyrie, especially during the breeding
season, preferring isolated areas with minimal human contact (15,33,
49,120). In urban situations however, breeding and wintering falcons
may demonstrate a remarkable tolerance to human activity, except
in the immediate vicinity of the nest site (43,70,75).

Habitat Associations - 8 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
General Fish
General Mammalia
General Aves

Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G
G Inland Wetlands: Bogs
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G Snags: Unknown
G Human Association: Farm ponds
G Availability of fence rows: roadside ditches and grassy
G Human Association: Abandoned buildings
G
G

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

LIFE HISTORY

FOOD HABITS:
The diet of the peregrine falcon consists primarily of a wide
variety of bird life, as confirmed by the number of species recorded
as taken in North America (15,20,33,34,55,59,81,102,136). Peregrines
generally hunt prey in the air. They attack flying birds by diving,
"stooping", on them from above or by pursuing them from behind and
binding to them in mid-air.
Throughout its range, the peregrine is opportunistic and varied
in its selection of prey, utilizing the most abundant species within
its preferred prey size range of 20 to 1,000 grams (38). Worldwide
peregrines prefer Columbiformes (08,15,23,38,58,75,81), while in some
locales, especially during the breeding season, passerines (31,75,89),
shorebirds and waterfowl (21,81,131) may comprise most of the diet.
Along the Yukon River in Alaska, and in California, 60 bird species
in each area were recorded as being utilized by resident peregrines
(24,33,34,71,90). Cade (38) estimated that as many as 200 species are
utilized throughout North America.
Seasonal variations do occur, however, and birds migrating or
wintering along the coastal locations, or near esturaries frequently
prey on waterfowl or seabirds (15,81,102), while birds wintering in or
near large urban areas may feed primarily on the large resident flocks
of pigeons and starlings found there (75). Small mammals comprise a
minor fraction of the peregrines diet (from 0 to 7 percent (107))
with bats recorded as a food source in Utah, California, and Texas
(84,90,102,113,114,121), and marmots (15), mice, shrews and voles
(33,34,59), hares and rabbits (15,20,33,34) recorded in other areas.
Invertebrates, fish (09,33,129), and insects (15,38,59,111) are
rarely included in the peregrine diet.

HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Since the nest site can be considered the focus of territorial
behavior by resident peregrines, the immediate area around the
nesting cliff is defended against interspecific, as well as
intraspecific intruders. Territorial behavior is usually manifested
by aggressive attacks by the resident birds toward an intruder.
These aggressive encounters may be characterized by loud
vocalizations, and/or spectacular flying which may result in actual
contact between the falcons and the intruder in the form of a blow
struck from a stoop or the grappling of feet between the combatants
(15,33,95).
The size of the territory defended is highly variable and it is
believed that it is dependent largely on the availability of food
and/or nest sites (104). Some falcons have been known to vigorously
defend an area up to 1.6 km or more from the eyrie site, while others
may allow interlopers to pass within 300 meters of the eyrie without
exhibiting territorial behavior (33). Cade (33) further feels that
territorial behavior in specific peregrines is highly variable and
dependent on such factors as level of motivation, phase of breeding
cycle, activity of the intruder, weather conditions, and time of day.
It appears likely that peregrines, like other raptors living in areas
of high prey density, have smaller home ranges and territories than
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

do birds living in regions where large areas are covered while
foraging for scarce and distant prey (94). Peregrines in Utah have
been known to travel over 27 km to hunt (102), while maritime
peregrines in Canada may hunt in close proximity to the eyrie site
(12).
Some peregrines, especially those living in areas of low prey
density, occupy large home ranges, but in the traditional sense only
defend a small radius around the nesting cliff including the nest
site as well as favorite hunting and roosting perches. Large areas
within this home range may not be defended in the usual territorial
sense (33).
Territoriality has not been observed in peregrines during
migration. Aggressive encounters with peregrines and other raptors
have frequently been observed, but these seem to be more in the nature
of play or confrontations over specific food items than territoriality
in the traditional sense (126,141). Aggressive encounters, both
inter- and intraspecific, have been observed in wintering peregrines.
The size of the territory and the nature and extent of the aggressive
responses appear highly variable (12).

PERIODICITY:
The peregrine falcon is a diurnal raptor active year round (26),
responding to normal photoperiod stimulation (130). Captive breeding
studies have revealed that photoperiod stimulation appears to be an
important factor in the timing and triggering of reproductive
behavior, the moult, and migration (40,127).

MIGRATION PATTERNS:
The anatum peregrine inhabiting the contiguous 48 states is
considered to be non- or slightly migratory by most ornithologists
(18,77,120,121). Most peregrines, particularly those in the southern
portions of their range, are believed to move only short distances
from their nest sites following available food sources during the
winter months, returning back to the vicinity of their natal origin
in the spring.
In the west, particularly in the southern part of their range,
and at lower elevations, i.e., in California, southern New Mexico,
Arizona and southwest Texas, many adults apparently remain in the
vicinity of their nests during the entire year, and true migration
may not occur (82,109,120,121,124). Only two records exist of young,
banded in California, being recovered out of state (07).
While little is known of the post breeding movement of adult or
immature peregrines, winter movement may occur, especially in the
northern part of their range. Some falcons are occasionally seen
wintering in the taiga regions of Alaska during mild winters (134).
Enderson (52) reported that wintering peregrines were frequently
observed in southern Colorado and northern Utah in association with
the large National Wildlife Refuges there. In addition, wintering
peregrines favor coastal estuaries and intertidal mud flats on the
Pacific Coast (05,124) along the Gulf Coast (22,52,82) and southern
Florida (22).
While the origin of wintering birds in the U.S. is uncertain at
present, band recoveries indicate that at least some of the birds
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

from Alaska and Canada are found wintering on the Pacific Coast (07,
17,119). In fact, banding data has revealed that all three subspecies
of peregrines, anatum, pealei, and tundrius, have been recovered in
California (07).
In Alaska, it is believed that most falcons depart from the
breeding areas soon after the young are independent (33). The precise
migration routes are unknown, but peregrines banded in the taiga have
been recovered from Washington, coastal Texas, Mexico, and El Salvador
while wintering anatum from Alaska have been recovered from such
diverse areas as British Columbia, Canada, Mexico, and Argentina (17).
It is believed that, depending on their origin, most Alaskan
peregrines follow the central or the Pacific flyway during their
migration (119).

COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The peregrine falcon requires a "cliff", natural or manmade, with
appropriate nesting ledges, usually associated with water and large
open areas, with an abundance of avian prey within its size range
upon which to feed (21,33,38,77,104). Refer to the field N-Habitat
for general habitat types.

REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
In the U.S., peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus anatum, almost
exclusively nest on rocky cliffs of varying sizes in mountainous
areas of river gorges, usually associated with water (15,21,33,119,
120,121). Tree nesting has been infrequently recorded in Alaska (44,
135), in large trees along rivers of the Great Plains (30,67,105),
and in the southeast (13,64,101,112). Similarly, the use of tree
nests built by other large birds has seldom been observed in this
country (01,14,83,98), and ground or cutback nests have been rarely
used (41,45,72). Manmade structures such as unfinished bridge piers,
bridges, skyscrapers (39,42,68,70,75,79), an electric tower (79), and
abandoned stone quarries in isolated areas (76) have all been
documented as breeding sites in North America for peregrines.
A nesting cliff of some sort is essential for successful nesting
over much of the peregrines range in North America (21,33,77). The
physiographic characteristics of the nesting cliff is varied with
eyries recorded from near sea level (83,93,124), to nearly 10,000 feet
(124). In the Rocky Mountain-Southwest population, nesting above
8500 feet is rare (49,57,109,121), while elevations between 6,000 and
8,000 feet and between 4,500 and 8,000 feet are preferred in New
Mexico and Arizona respectively (51,57,109,121).
Cliffs and rocky craigs often associated with water are the
preferred sites. Cliffs often have a sheer face of 50 or more meters
in height and frequently have an overhang, small cave, or pothole,
and a level ledge large enough to hold a brood of young associated
with it (15,20,33,79,104). Preferred cliff sites often are
traditional with a long history of occupancy (15,21,33,75,104).
Peregrines make no nest, but scratch out a shallow cup or scrape
with their feet in the loose gravel or soil of the nesting ledge in
which the eggs are laid. The size of the scrape is variable, but
the typical scrape is about 17 to 22 cm (7 to 9 inches) in diameter,
and 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 inches) deep (104).
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Details of the breeding behavior of the peregrine falcon have
been described by Bend (15), Bagg and Eliot (10), Nelson (92),
Ratcliff (104), and Wrege and Cade (140). The peregrine falcon is
monogamous and, to date, there is no documented evidence of true
polygamy or polyandry occurring in this species. Full sexual
maturation in a wild population is reached at two years for females
and three years for males (88,104), however birds with immature
plumage have been known to breed with this occurring more frequently
in females than males (79,88,104). A number of records exist
documenting the breeding success of birds in excess of fifteen years
of age (70,75,80). While little direct evidence exists concerning
the duration of the pair bond in peregrines, it has been suggested
that once a pair bond has been established and breeding commences, the
pair is likely to remain together unless one of the mates is lost
(70,75,94).
The onset of the breeding season usually coincides with "spring"
in a particular region. In the east and south, courtship begins in
February and eggs are laid in March and April (10,15,18,75). In the
west and southwest, depending on the latitude and elevation,
courtship may begin in February or early March and egg laying can
commence by the end of March or early April. In the northern
Rockies, eggs are laid in late April or May and fledging may not occur
until July (120,121,124). In the interior of Alaska, peregrines
arrive at eyrie sites in mid April and the eggs are laid toward the
end of May with chicks fledging typically about the end of July (33,
119).
The female peregrine normally lays a single clutch of eggs, and
a replacement clutch is frequently laid if the first clutch is lost
early in incubation. As many as four clutches have been recorded in
a single season for a female (15,21,75,77). The normal clutch size
in North America is from three to four eggs, while two to seven have
been recorded (15,33,69,79,119,121).
Captive breeding studies have revealed that incubation in the
anatum peregrine lasts for 33 days (127). The breeding season in
North America typically lasts from early courtship through the
independence of young. Depending on such factors as latitude and
altitude, this period may last from four to six months (15,33,108,
119,121).

PARENTAL CARE:
Parental care is highly developed in falcons (38). Most of the
incubation duties are carried out by the female whild the male hunts
for prey. The principle role of the male at this time is to catch,
pluck, and transfer food items to the female while the female remains
close to the eyrie site performing the bulk of the incubation,
brooding and feeding. Incubation is shared by the anatum and lasts
33 days (127). Nest defense also is shared, with the female generally
being more aggressive.
Young falcons are semi-altricial and nidicolous (38). For the
first eight to ten days, the chicks are nearly blind and helpless,
and require almost constant brooding. Depending on the ambient
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

temperature, some brooding may occur through the first two to three
weeks and chicks are frequently sheltered from strong sun and rain
over a longer period of time (15,33,92,104,127).
Some feeding duties may be shared, but for the first few weeks
the female does the bulk of the feeding. After the chicks are about
three weeks old and can largely feed themselves, the female resumes
active hunting and the male will frequently take prey items directly
to the chicks.
Generally, young remain in the eyrie about six weeks (38,92,128),
but Cade (38) feels thaat 40 to 46 days is the normal range for
fledging in North America with males generally fledging shortly before
females. Once young falcons are on the wing, flying and hunting
skills develop rapidly. Aerial food transfers between parents and
young frequently occur as well as cooperative hunting flights
(10,15,108).
Very little data are available on the length of the post fledging
dependency period for young peregrines. This time period apparently
varies between and within populations, and a range from five to over
ten weeks has been recorded (104,108). Sherrod (108) suggests that
parental care may even continue during migration in the case of far
northern breeders.

POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The population biology of the peregrine falcon in North America
and elsewhere has been addressed in detail by Cade (38,33), Enderson
(52), Hickey (78), Radcliffe (104), Newton (94), and Mearns and
Newton (88). Peregrines normally breed after their second year, and
once a pair bond is established, it appears to be relatively stable.
While the average life span of breeding adults is unknown at present,
it may be as long as eight to ten years, and a number of records exist
for birds breeding in excess of 15 years (94). The average clutch
size for the anatum is variable from nearly 3.0 eggs in Alaska (33) to
approximately 3.75 elsewhere in North America (21,77).
Studies of peregrine population dynamics suggest a first year
mortality rate of approximately 70 to 80 percent and 10 to 25 percent
thereafter may be considered normal (79,104,142). A fledgling rate
increase of from 1.25 to 1.5 young per successful nest appears
adequate to sustain growth in a population and to maintain stability
(02,50,104,119).
The recovery goal in the Rocky Mountains-Southwest population
is to achieve a minimum of 183 pairs with a long term productivity of
1.25 young/ nest (121). In the Pacific Coast states of California,
Oregon and Washington, the goal is to achieve a population of at
least 185 pairs (CA 120; OR 30; WA 30) in order to delist (120). The
recovery objective for interior Alaska is "to maintain a healthy
productivity for at least a five year period from 70 percent of the
usable sites" (119). These goals seem reasonable and attainable and
a general buildup in the population is probable if the pesticide
problem is successfully resolved.

SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The peregrine falcon has no such relationships.

Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
There are no other life history descriptors for the peregrine
falcon that have not already been discussed.

Life History - 6 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse Rock Climbing
Existing Rock Climbing
Adverse Climate Alteration
Existing Climate Alteration
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Adverse Surface Mines
Existing Surface Mines
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Air Space Usage
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Creating Artificial Habitat/Nesting Structure
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse Rock Climbing
Existing Rock Climbing
Adverse Climate Alteration
Existing Climate Alteration
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Disease
Existing Disease
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Gas/Oil Development
Existing Gas/Oil Development
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Adverse Surface Mines
Existing Surface Mines
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
A number of factors have contributed to the decline of North
American peregrine populations. Among the more important factors
were: Shooting, egg collection, removal of young, disease, predation,
parasites, climatological changes, decreasing food supply,
competition, human disturbance of the eyrie during the breeding
season (specifically rock climbing), and probably the most
significant, the destruction of nesting habitat (15,18,21,33,77,119,
121). Habitat loss can be attributed to development, mining, oil and
gas exploration, untimely water level fluctuations, recreational
areas, highways, utilities, and the effect of the equipment used in
construction or mining.
Major threats affecting peregrine habitat are: 1) Human
development of nesting habitat (21,49,75,77); 2) recreational use of
breeding and wintering habitat (15,21,77); 3) habitat loss owing to
surface disturbances - mining, road building, logging (i.e., forest
clearing) (49,75,119,120); 4) pesticide application to feeding or
wintering habitat (73,120); and 5) aerial disturbances - sonic booms,
aerial surveys, etc. (49,62,92,120).
Despite some early decline owing to the above factors, the
peregrine population remained relatively stable until the early 1950's
and the mid 1960's in the contiguous states and Alaska respectively
(18,119,120,121). At that time, a drastic and general decline in
peregrine numbers was noted in the eastern United States and elsewhere
(73,79,91,104), and a puzzling sequence of events occurred that was
not readily explainable. Eggs began to disappear, well established
pairs failed to raise young, and it was observed that sporadic
production, occupancy, and eventual eyrie abandonment were occurring
(18,70,75,79,119,120,121). Ratcliffe (103,104) suggested that a
similar decline in Great Britain was correlated with agricultural
pesticides, especially the chlorinated hydrocarbons, dieldrin and DDT
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

and its metabolites. Hickey and Anderson (79) reported egg shell
thinning associated with high levels of DDE in North American
peregrines.
Solid evidence was presented that DDT not only was associated
with egg shell thinning in various species of raptors, including
peregrines (35,54,61,110), but that DDE was in fact the causative
agent responsible for the egg shell thinning pehnemenon (137) which
increased the liklihood of egg breakage from the weight of the
incubating bird (96). In addition to egg shell thinning, behavioral
aberrations in adult nesting peregrines and other raptors were
observed during this period of decline, 1950 to 1970, that often
resulted in abandoned or poorly cared for young and decreased
production (103,110,143). Enderson and Craig (55) and Enderson et al.
(53) linked the presence of chlorinated hydrocarbons, especially DDE,
to the decline of the peregrine in the Rocky Mountain-Southwest
population. In Alaska, Cade et al. (34) and Enderson et al. (53)
provided evidence that chlorinated hydrocarbon contamination there had
also reached sufficient levels to result in a decline in the
peregrine population by the mid 1960's. Although dieldrin has been
implicated as the primary factor in Britain and parts of Europe,
(Newton (94) and Ratcliffe (104)), its role as a mortality factor in
North America remains unclear.
The Eastern peregrine population was extirpated as a breeding
species by the early 1960's (16,34). Lows in the Western, Southwest,
and Pacific Coast populations were recorded in the early 1970's (55,
91,120,121), while in Alaska, eyrie occupancy declined until about
1975 (36,62). Even though pesticide use, especially DDT, was
curtailed by legislation (the Federal Pesticide Control Act and
similar state laws) DDT is highly residual and continues to affect
raptor populations.
There is no doubt that the major cause of the population crash
and the most significant factor limiting recovery of the peregrine
populations to historical levels is the residual effect and the
continued widespread persistent use of pesticides (chlorinated
hydrocarbons, specifically DDT) in many areas including migration
routes in the U.S. and wintering areas in South America (65,74,97,106,
123). While such factors as predation (18,28,29,32,69,75,132),
disease (21,86,118,132), and natural catastrophies (33) may affect
local populations, they do not limit the population. The anatum
population in most areas of its range is still well below levels at
which food supply, cover, territoriality, and competition become
significant limiting factors (124). Exceptions to this may be areas
in Arizona (50) and the taiga population in Alaska where populations
along the major river drainages are near normal (02).
If the pesticide issue can be resolved and intelligent habitat
management (49,85), population, and productivity enhancement measures
(37,116,117) can be implemented, the future may be secure for the
peregrines in North America.

APPROVED PLAN (4 Population Plans):
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Peregrine Falcon Recovery Plan
(Alaska Population). U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Anchorage, AK.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

69 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the American
Peregrine Falcon (Pacific Coast Population). U.S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv., Portland, OR. 87 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. American Peregrine Falcon
Recovery Plan (Rocky Mountain/Southwest Population). U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Denver, CO. 105 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Revised Eastern Peregrine
Falcon Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Newton Corner, MA.
147 pp.

Four recovery plans have been developed for the American
peregrine falcon: Alaska population (which also includes the Arctic
peregrine falcon); Eastern; Rocky Mountain-Southwest; and the Pacific
populations. All four plans advocate the implementation of
essentially the same general tasks for achieving recovery, with the
exception of the Alaska population where captive breeding and
reintroduction are not major recovery features. In varying degrees,
all of the tasks identified below are currently being implemented for
each plan.
1) Insure sufficient habitat. Important nesting and foraging
areas are being identified through such means as literature searches,
field surveys, and banding/marking/telemetry programs for following
and relocating free-flying peregrines. Management options to insure
sufficient habitats exist may include habitat rehabilitation or the
use of artificial nesting structures, and acquisition. The limiting
of human disturbance is also crucial to nesting success.
2) Insure adequate protection on the nesting areas, migration
routes, and wintering areas. This is being accomplished by minimizing
of modifying human activities in these areas. Potentially destructive
human activites such as pesticide use, pollution, development, mining,
and some timber harvesting practices need to be evaluated and
curtailed. Limiting human access to, and in some cases recreational
acitvities (such as off-road vehicles or boating) near nesting sites
and wintering areas is also recomended for recovery. The controlling
of air space usage near nesting areas and along migration routes has
shown to decrease direct mortality.
3) Monitor population trends. Surveys are conducted to ascertain
occupancy and productivity of peregrine falcons in each of the four
recovery regions with emphasis on major breeding concentrations
(especially in Alaska). Disease control and rehabilitation may be
necessary for some individuals. Blood, tissue, feather, and egg
samples are being collected to monitor pesticide and other contaminant
levels.
4) Conduct field research on prey species on the breeding
grounds, migration routes, and wintering areas. This work is being
done in an effort to determine sources and levels of contamination.
5) Prevent killing, taking (for commercial falconry or
noncommercial purposes), or disturbances of falcons through
enforcement of State and Federal law.
Management Practices - 5 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

6) Captive breeding and reintroduction of peregrine falcons.
This is a major recovery task for the Eastern, Rocky Mountain,
Southwest, and Pacific recovery populations. Peregrines are
propagated and released in suitable locations employing hacking,
fostering, and/or cross-fostering release techniques. If
reintroduction is successful in the east it will involve a genetically
mixed stock bred from several subspecies, for no pure Falco peregrinus
anatum stock is available. In the west efforts are divided between
safeguarding the remaining peregrines and augmenting numbers by
placing in the nests wild pairs eggs or young which have been laid or
hatched in captivity.
7) Develop and implement education programs. This effort
includes but is not limited to: The preparation of brochures and
posters, radio and television spots; and slide/video programs for
distribution to schools, conservation agencies, and sportsmen's
groups.

Management Practices - 6 (DRAFT) - References
Species FALCON, PEREGRINE, AMERICAN
Species Id ESIS109002
Date 14 MAR 96

References

References - 1