(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - TURTLE, SEA, GREEN;TURTLE, GREEN;TURTLE, SEA, GREEN, ATLANTIC;TURTLE, GREEN, ATLANTIC;TURTLE, SEA, GREEN, PACIFIC;TURTLE and GREENBACK;TORTUGA BLANCA;TORTUE VERTE;PEJEBLANCO;PEJE BLANCO;CRIOLLA;CAREY BLANCO;HONO O KE KAI;HONU
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Reptiles
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - REPTILIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - TESTUDINES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - CHELONIIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - CHELONIA,
SPECIES AND SSP - MYDAS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - CHELONIA MYDAS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Green Sea Turtle
Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Reptile
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Reptilia
ORDER: Testudines FAMILY: Cheloniidae
The green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, is a medium to large sized
species. The maximum reliable weight is 850 lbs (386 kg) but a 500
lbs (237 kg) turtle would be a tremendous one today (01). A
distinctive feature of this species is a single pair of prefrontal
scales on the head. The carapace is broad, low and more or less
heart-shaped. The carapace is smooth at all ages. There are four
pair of costal scutes and the first one does not touch the nuchal.
Hatchlings are black above and white below. Older ones have a basic
brown colored carapace which is often marked with either wavy or
mottled markings of a darker color or sometimes with dark blotches.
The plastron is white or a light yellow. More information can be
found on morphology and identification in Ernst and Barbour (02).
The nomenclature of the green sea turtle has been very stable,
this is particularly true of the Atlantic population. The major
controversy has been the number of species in the genus, and the
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
number of subspecies belonging to Chelonia mydas complex. Two species
are widely recognized, the widely distributed C. mydas (03) and the
Australian species, Notator depressa (a newly resurrected genus) (49).
It is generally said that the green turtle, Chelonia mydas complex
consists of a number of genetically isolated populations (04) and a
common arrangement has been to recognize the Atlantic form as mydas
and restrict agassizii to the Pacific, either as a species or as a
subspecies of C. mydas (05).
Smith and Taylor (05) state they are unable to determine characters to
justify such an arrangement. Ogren (06) states that the greatest
morphological divergence in the mydas complex exists between the
eastern Pacific population and the rest of the complex and if further
taxonomic studies prove it is a separate species it will assume the
name Chelonia agassizii Bocourt, 1868.
The species was described by Linnaeus in 1758 as Testudo mydas.
The type is unknown and the type locality has been restricted to
Ascension Island (05). A synonymy (from Hirth, 1980 (38) unless
otherwise indicated) follows:
Testudo mydas Linnaeus, 1758 Syst. Nat. 10th ed., 1:197;
Testudo macropus Walbaum, 1782;
Testudo viridis Schneider, 1783;
Testudo japonica Thunberg, 1787;
Testudo marina vulgaris Lacepede, 1788;
Testudo viridis-squamosa Lacepede, 1788;
Chelonia mydas Brongniart, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom., Vol. 2, 1800,
Page 89;
Testudo rugosa Daudin, 1801;
Testudo cepediana Daudin, 1801;
Chelonia virgata Schweigger, 1812;
Caretta cepedii Merrem, 1820;
Caretta esculenta Merrem, 1820;
Caretta thunbergii Merrem, 1820;
Caretta nasicornis Merrem, 1820;
Chelonia lachrymata Cuvier, 1824;
Chelonia maculosa Cuvier, 1824;
Chelonia bicarinata Lesson, 1834;
Chelonia marmorata Dumeril & Bibron, 1835;
Euchelys macropus Girard, 1858;
Chelonia formosa Girard, 1858;
Chelonia tenuis Girard, 1858;
Chelonia albiventer Nardo, 1864;
Chelonia agassizii Bocourt, 1868;
Chelonia lata Philippi, 1887;
Chelonia mydas mydas Carr, 1952. Handbook of Turtles, Page 345.
Chelonia mydas carrinegra Caldwell, 1962
The eastern Pacific population is left with its name undetermined
for the reasons given above.
The green sea turtle may also be known by the English names green
turtle, Atlantic green turtle, Atlantic green sea turtle, Pacific
green sea turtle, and greenback turtle; the Spanish common names
tortuga blanca, pejeblanco (or peje blanco), Criolla and carey blanco
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
(PR); the French name tortue verte; and the Hawaiian names hono o ke
kai and honu.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Threatened
Alabama; Unofficially Listed
Florida; Federal Endangered
Florida; Officially Listed
Georgia; Federal Threatened
Georgia; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Threatened
Louisiana; State Recognized
Mississippi; State Listed
North Carolina; State Recognized
Puerto Rico; State Listed
South Carolina; State Listed
Virgin Islands; Federal Threatened
Virgin Islands; State Recognized
E: Federal Endangered
T: Federal Threatened
Commercial
Commercial/consumption
Non-consumptive recreational
Ceremonial/Cultural
Aphrodisiac
Ornamental
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) has been designated a
Threatened species worldwide, except the breeding colony populations
in Florida and on the Pacific coast of Mexico where it is designated
an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. Critical Habitat has not been designated.
The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, the Marine
Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) of 1972, and the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 all provide or potentially provide
protection or management alternatives for sea turtles. The MPRSA
creates marine sanctuaries out of water areas above the continental
shelf. Three sanctuaries have been designated that potentially
protect sea turtle habitat. Laws and regulations governing
administration of the National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, and National Park Service, also affect management of
these species on nesting beaches under the jurisdiction of the
agencies.
Special rules concerning prohibitions (threatened wildlife),
permits, incidental take, and subsistence take for this species can be
found in 50 CFR 17.42(b). Special Rules do not apply to the
populations listed as endangered. Special Rules for sea turtle
permits can be found in 50 CFR 220 and other prohibitions at 50 CFR
227.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
NMFS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing and
law enforcement/protection of this species while the
turtles are at sea. The National Marine Fisheries
Service is the lead agency and has sole jurisdiction
while the species is in the water (50 CFR 222.23(a)
and 227.4)
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species while it is
on land (50 CFR 222.23 (a).
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands
(Sikes Act).
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Connecticut, Florida and Puerto Rico
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered (also listed as Threatened in CT)
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: CT Dept. of Environmental Protection.
FL Game & Fresh Water Fish Commission.
PR Dept. of Natural Resources.
STATE STATUTE: CT Gen. Stat. Annotated, Subsec. 26-40d, 26-40e.
FL End. & Thr. Sp. Act of 1977, FL Stat., Sec.
372.072; and Admin. Code, Sec. 39-27.03-.05.
PR Reg. to Govern the Management of Thr. & End.
Species in the Commonwealth of PR, 1985; also
Law No. 83, "Fishing Law".
STATE: Guam, Hawaii, Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina,
and Texas.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Threatened (also Protected Nongame in TX)
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: GU Dept. of Agriculture, Aquatic &
Wildlife Resources Division.
HI Dept. of Land & Natural Resources.
MA Dept. Fish., Wildl. & Rec. Vehic.
NY Dept. of Envirnomental Conservation.
SC Wildlife & Marine Resources Dept.
TX Parks and Wildlife Department.
STATE STATUTE: GU Government Code of GU., Sec. 12325.4(e), (P.L.
15-36)
HI Revised Statutes, Subsec. 195D-4, 195D-5;
Administrative Rules of HI, Sec 13-124-3.
MA Nongame Wildlife for Special Consideration in
Mass., Sec. I, 1983.
NY Code, Rules and Regulations, 182.5.
SC Code 50-15, Rule 123-150.
TX Ch. 67, TX Parks & Wildlife Code; TX
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
Annotated Code, Sec 65.173.
STATE: California, Delaware, Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland,
New Jersey, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Virgin Islands,
and Virginia.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Threatened
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: CA Department of Fish and Game.
DE Dept. Nat. Resour. & Environ. Contam.
GA Department of Natural Resources.
LA Wildlife and Fisheries Commission.
MD Dept. of Natural Resources.
NJ Dept. of Environmental Protection,
Div. of Fish, Game & Wildlife.
NC Wildlife Resources Commission.
RI Dept. of Environmental Management,
Division of Fish and Wildlife.
VI Dept. Conservation & Cultural Affairs.
VA Commission of Game & Inland Fisheries.
STATE STATUTE: CA Coop. Agrmt. between CA Dept. Fish & Game and
the U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., pursuant to the
Endang. Sp. Act, 1973 and as amended 11-10-78.
DE DE. Code Annot., Title 7, Ch. 6, Sec. 601-604.
GA Endangered Wildl. Act of 1973, Art. 27-3-130.
LA LA. Statutes Annot. 56:1901 to 56:1907.
MD Non-game & End. Sp. Conserv. Act of 1975,
10-2A01 et seq.; Code of MD Regs. 08.03.01.43,
Supp. 4.
NJ NJ. Admin. Code, 7:25-20.1, 20.2.
NC NC. Gen. Stat. 113-134, 113-132, 143-239;
15 NC Admin. Code, Wildl. Resour. & Water
Safety, Subch. 10 I, Endang. & Thr. Species.
RI Gen. Laws of RI., Subsec. 20-37-1 to 20-37-5.
VI Title 3, Ch. 22, VI Code of Laws, Subsec.
406A; also Title 12, Ch. 9, Subsec. 318.
VA Code of VA., Subsec. 29-230 to 29-237.
STATE: Alabama
UNOFFICIAL LIST: Endangered. IN: Mount, R.H., ed. 1986.
"Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of
special attention". AL Agric. Exper. Stat.,
Auburn. 124 pp.
STATE: American Samoa
DESIGNATED STATUS: None.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The green sea turtle is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), under the listing of the family Cheloniidae. The green sea
turtle is not protected under this Convention by France and its Trust
Territories in the Caribbean because France maintains a "reservation"
on this species, and thus may engage in international trade.
Chelonia mydas is listed as endangered in the 1986 IUCN Red List
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
of Threatened Animals.
The green turtle (Chelonia mydas mydas was listed as a peripheral
species by the U.S. in the Western Hemisphere Convention Annex (1967)
(La Convencion para la Protection de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las
Bellezas Escenicas Naturales de los Estados Americanos) but does not
appear in the 1970 revision. The impact of this on conservation and
management is unknown. The Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979, 22 nations, U.S. not a
signatory) may influence conservation and management of the green sea
turtle.
In Mexico, green sea turtles are protected by the Ley De Desaudlo
Pesquero, May 25, 1972, which authorized establishing seasonal and
catch limits for fish including sea turtles. This law is administered
by the Mexican Department of Fisheries and Department of Wildlife. A
variety of other regulations protect green sea turtles in Mexico, both
at sea and on nesting beaches although adequate enforcement resources
remains a problem. Mexico is not a signatory to CITES.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Sea turtles, including the green, have historically been
exploited for meat, jewelry, and the curio trade. In the U.S. the
green turtle was used as the base of gourmet turtle soup and in
colonial times the meat was quite popular. Greens have also suffered
from excessive egg harvest. This commercial use continues in much of
their range. The eggs are believed by some to be an aphrodisiac.
Green sea turtles are raised mariculturally in the Caribbean. Green
turtles have aesthetic values and significant high scientific value
because of a number of currently poorly understood life history
features including their navigational ability in migratory movements
and the fact that greens are unique among marine turtles in their
ability to digest plant material. In Micronesia, turtle bones were
used to make tools and various parts of the body were used for
medicinal purposes. Also, the green turtle, in the past (and even
today in some locations), has played an important role in religious
and cultural practices (45).
Status - 5 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
TERRESTRIAL
COASTAL
OCEANIC
LAND USE -
Residential
Commercial and Services
Bays and Estuaries
Beaches
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, subtidal UB
Estuarine, subtidal RB
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, subtidal RF1
Marine, subtidal RB
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
Estuarine, subtidal UB
Estuarine, subtidal RB
Estuarine, subtidal AB2
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, subtidal RF1
Marine, subtidal RB
Marine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal AB2
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
A number of studies have been made of nesting beaches, and it is
now obvious that many types of beaches will meet the nesting
requirements of the green sea turtle (15). Mortimer (15) found that
sand grain size did not appear to be important. Beach nourishment
material with high silt clay content (small grain size) results in
compacted beach and adversely impacts nesting turtles in Florida (49).
The "beach approach" should be high enough to prevent tidal
innundation of eggs. Mortimer (15) concludes that biotic factors may
be most important (e.g., the number of predators), consequently the
turtles select islands or strips of mainland that are not prime
habitat for predators. Mortimer (15) made her study on Ascension
Island. There have been no reported studies of characteristics of
nesting sites of green turtles in Florida. Dodd (16) points out that
the green turtle nests most often on undeveloped beaches, however
nesting beaches do occur adjacent to or as part of developed areas
such as hotels, condominiums, and resorts and may be affected by
management of these areas. The female nests at night generally on
high energy beaches (36).
Off the coast where sargassum occurs, the hatchlings are thought
to spend the "lost year" passively drifting in the current with the
rafts of sargassum. This is based on work off the Panamanian coast by
Carr (16) and analogy with work on loggerheads (17,18). Apparently
the only reported association of green turtles with sargassum in U.S.
waters was the presence of one in the stomach of a dolphin caught near
a sargassum raft (19).
Habitat Associations - 1 The habitat of sexually immature juvenile green turtles has been
described for two Floridian areas in general terms (20,21), and their
occurrence in Texas has been classified as turtle grass beds with no
additional description (07). One study site in Florida was Mosquito
Lagoon on the east coast (21). Data on ambient temperatures,
salinity, etc., have not been published. The lagoon is shallow with
an average depth of 1.5 m and depths greater than 3 meters were
confined to the intracoastal canal. The best netting sites were in
the troughs located next to shallow (less than 0.6 m) flats covered
with sea grasses, Halodule, and Syringodium. Green turtles were most
susceptible to capture during the warm months of the year. This was
probably due to increased activity during the warmer months because
"cold-stunned" greens were taken in January, 1977 and 1978. The other
study was on the commercial fishery in the Cedar Key-Crystal River
area of the Gulf coast of peninsular Florida. This is an open area
with low wave energy. Tangle nets were set in troughs near grass
flats in shallow water (20). The grass flats were chiefly composed of
turtle grass, Thalassia. The fishery is outlawed now during the warm
months of the year.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Sponges
General Coelenterata
General Vascular Plants-Submerged Nonwoody
General Sponges
General Coelenterata
General Vascular Plants-Submerged Nonwoody
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The diet of the green turtle has been little studied in the
Atlantic and Gulf waters of the United States. It is generally
implied, and no doubt correctly, that the herbivorous green turtle
feeds on sea grasses or algae near its point of capture. Plants
mentioned in Florida are Thalassia, Syringodium, Sagittaria,
Halodule, and Vallisneria (20,21,22).
The diet of the green turtle can be discussed more profitably
over its entire western Atlantic range rather than restricting it to
the few data available from Florida. During the "lost year" phase of
its life history virtually nothing is known of food habits, but it is
stated to be omnivorous (06) or carnivorous (23). When it reaches
dinner plate size it becomes a herbivore feeding on sea grasses or
algae or both (24). Algal feeders and sea grass feeders may require
different suites of mircroorganisms in their intestines. In the
western Atlantic, the green turtle feeds primarily in the extensive
turtle grass, Thalassia textudinum, meadows but it also grazes
Halophila, Halodule, Syringodium and Zostera (23). A number of red
and green algae may also be eaten (24). The green turtle does not
graze randomly in the sea grass meadows but maintains close-cropped
areas ("scar") in order to graze selectively on the more nutritious
new growth (25,26). Green turtles may take terrestrial plant debris
brought in by the river and even floating hyacinth stalks when
migrating to the nesting grounds (24).
Although the two most detailed studies indicate strict herbivory,
animal matter comprised one percent (25,27). This and the propensity
of the species to utilize available animal food sources supplied by
man (07,29) indicates that opportunistic feeding in the wild on the
dense concentrations of jellyfish or on sponges (44) may occur on rare
occasions.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Philopatry is strong in the green sea turtle. No tagged turtle
at Tortugero, Costa Rica, has been reported nesting on any other beach
(30). In most cases, there is considerable distance between the
nesting and foraging ground.
Most experiments on the foraging ground have involved homing
experiments. Some experiments off Cedar Key, FL (20) and in Burmuda
(31) indicate a strong zonal attraction on the feeding grounds.
Whether the same animal uses the same resting site night after night
is not known. However, work in the Virgin Islands shows several
turtles grazing the same "scar" in the grassbeds; which indicates a
lack of territoriality during the active daylight period (26).
PERIODICITY:
The species is active during the day and rests on the bottom at
night (14). In Florida and Texas the commercial catch declined during
the winter months. Hibernation has not been proven but the presence
of the green turtles in winter months has been proven by cold-stunning
during cold waves (07,21).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
There are now three returns of green sea turtles tagged in
Tortuguero, Costa Rica from U.S. waters (Marquesas Keys, FL) (14,32).
It is assumed that green turtles are migratory, but as pointed out by
Hildebrand (07) for the Texas fishery and Carr and Caldwell (20) for
west Florida, the nesting grounds of these green turtles are unknown.
There are few green turtles that nest in Florida. No recovery of
tagged nesting green turtles has been reported except from the beach
on which it was tagged. One has nested twice at 2-year intervals
since it was first tagged which supports the concept of strong
philopatry in the Floridian turtles. However, this tells nothing of
its movements between nesting periods (33). The possibility should
not be overlooked that some Florida green turtles are non-migratory
because feeding grounds and good nesting beaches are juxtaposed.
However, proof of non-migratory behavior is completely lacking (20,
34).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
It is generally stated that the subadults occupy the shallow
grass beds. In Mosquito Lagoon this was less than 0.6 m (21) and in
the Cedar Key area of Florida the commercial fishery was in shallow
water of 3 to 4 m in depth (20). Ogden and Williams (26) in a study
in the Virgin Islands found the smaller turtles in shallow water and
the larger ones in deeper water. The dividing contour was
approximately 10 m. The green turtle has a characteristic nocturnal
resting place and a regular diurnal visitation of a feeding site in
the Virgin Islands (35). These have not been characterized for the
continental U.S. population.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Turtles usually mate off the nesting beaches (23). If breeding
occurs elsewhere (e.g., on foraging grounds or enroute), it has not
been documented (23). A number of studies have been made of nesting
beaches, and it is now obvious that many types of beaches will meet
the nesting requirements of the green turtle (15). Mortimer (15)
found that sand grain size did not appear to be important. The beach
approach should be high enough to prevent tidal innundation of eggs.
Mortimer concludes that biotic factors may be most important (e.g.,
the number of predators), consequently the turtles select islands or
strips of mainland that are not prime habitat for predators. Mortimer
(15) made her study on Ascension Island. There have been no reported
studies of characteristics of nesting sites of greens in Florida,
however, Dodd (16) points out that the green nests most often
on undeveloped beaches. The female nests at night on a high energy
sand beach. She digs an urn-shaped pit about 18 inches deep. The
eggs are deposited in the pit and it is covered with sand (36).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The age at sexual maturity is unknown. Early estimates of 4 to
13 years based mainly on growth of turtles reared in captivity are
unreliable (23). Mendoca (37) computed an age at maturity in Mosquito
Lagoon of 30 years; this was based on a mark and recapture study of
wild turtles. There is no data on maximum breeding age in U.S.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
waters. The length of the mating season is unknown because mating
takes place at sea. According to Hirth, off the larger nesting areas
such as Tortugero a female is attended by more than one male and the
males show an interest in any female (23). This suggested, but does
not prove, that polyandry may be the modus operandi. The female lays
an average of 2.8 (range 1-6) clutches during a nesting season, and
most green turtles nest every 2, 3 or 4 years (38,39). An average
clutch size for Florida is 149 eggs/clutch (n=26) and in Tortuguero,
the female lays an average of 110 eggs per clutch, and the average
incubation time is 55 days (38).
PARENTAL CARE:
No parental care occurs. The eggs are deposited in the sand and
the female leaves the area (01).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
It is assumed that there is an abundant food supply for the
greatly depleted populations of green turtles in the United States
waters. The present population status is due to overexploitation by
man and natural catastrophes (07). No population models have been
developed for the Florida green turtle, however, Pritchard (28)
considers that the green turtle is increasing in numbers in Florida
and there may be as many as 300 to 400 nesting females in the state.
He bases this on the number of reported nests. There are no estimates
for the number of juveniles and subadults in Texas and Florida. The
Recovery Plan has a limited primary objective of preventing further
declines in the green turtle stocks by reducing limiting factors and
to effect an upward trend in monitored stocks of nesting females (13).
In general, this means keeping laws in effect prohibiting the taking
and harassment of green turtles and protecting habitat from
development. On the beaches along Cape Canaveral, in 1986, 37 green
sea turtle nests were reported (42) and state-wide a total of 746
green sea turtles were reported (47).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The green turtle is a herbivore and consumes a number of species
of algae and sea grasses. The most important sea grass is turtle
grass, Thalassia. Hirth (23) points out that in many instances the
distribution of the green turtle coincides with the distribution of
sea grasses, and certainly a century ago the coincidence was even
greater. In the United States, fishable stocks were found in Texas
(07) and the west coast of Florida (20) on sea grass meadows. An
important component of these grass beds was turtle grass, Thalassia
testudinum.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Fibropapillomas (tumors) are being found commonly on up to 10% of
the nesting female green turtles being tagged each year in the
Hawaiian Islands (40-56 percent in Florida (48)). They most
frequently occur on the neck, eyes, flippers, jaw, tail and sometimes
the mouth. The fibropapillomas can result in reduced vision,
disorientation, blindness, obstruction of normal physical
breeding/swimming and increased suceptibility to parasitism,
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
emaciation, predation and fishing line entanglement. Although not
known, preliminary research suggests a type of herpes virus (50).
The occurrence of fibropapillomas may be a severe problem for the
small, geographically isolated Hawaiian population (few hundred
nesting females at French Frigate Shoals) (43).
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Reducing Urban Light Radiation
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Oil Spills
Existing Oil Spills
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Reducing Urban Light Radiation
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Disease Control Measures
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Existing Harassment/Vandalism/Indiscriminate Killing
Adverse Poaching
Existing Poaching
Adverse Commercial Exploitation
Existing Commercial Exploitation
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Oil Spills
Existing Oil Spills
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
There is no doubt that the green turtle populations in the
eastern United States are remnants of what existed in the nineteenth
century in Florida and Texas. Unfortunately, the decline took place
before there were scientific observers. Carr (01) in Florida and
Hildebrand (07) and Doughty (08) in Texas have written on the history
of the green turtle fishery in their respective areas. In both cases,
the number of turtles were quickly reduced by an intensive fishery,
and only on the west coast of Florida, chielfy in Levy and Citrus
Counties, did a fishery persist until closed by law in 1971 (09).
Today poaching of green turtles at each life stage remains a threat to
the species (41). Hildebrand (07) also emphasized the importance of
natural disaster, particularly severe winter cold which killed turtles
in the 1890's. The role of predators other then man has never been
quantified. Raccoons are important predators of turtle nests in
Florida (10) but all the published data apply to loggerhead nests.
Sharks and many fish eat turtles (04). Another factor that is
detrimental is incidental capture by various types of fishing gear
(11). This type of mortality will increase as the amount of fishing
gear in use increases. Dredging and spoiling will effect sea grasses,
which are essential as food for the green turtle. Pollution by oil,
industrial and agricultural chemicals also pose a continuing threat to
the turtles and their food organisms (13). Residential, commercial
and industrial development, as well as dredge and fill operations,
also may have eliminated foraging habitat (41).
The greatest impact on nesting beaches, at least those where the
turtles nest successfully under natural conditions, is made by dense
human population. These impacts are varied, e.g., trampling the newly
hatched turtles, packing the sand so tightly above the nest by foot
traffic until the neonates cannot emerge, frightening off nesting
females, disorientating females and neonates by bright lights,
destruction of nesting area by groins, bulkheads, riprap and increased
erosion, nest destruction by pets and crowding of nesting turtles and
predators on the relatively small undeveloped areas (12,13,14).
APPROVED PLAN:
National Marine Fisheries Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for Marine
Turtles. National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, FL
355 pp.
The green sea turtle is included in the Recovery Plan for Marine
sea turtles. Recovery for the green sea turtle is to be affected by
the following:
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
1. Mitigate factors affecting terrestrial mortality and/or stress.
a. Managing natural beaches. If nest sites are poor (prone to
innudation or predation), nests may be transferred to a
better location. Remove exotic vegetation (e.g., Casuarina)
to improve nest excavation. Remove trees and seedlings on
potential nest sites on important beaches.
b. Conduct studies to determine the effects of bilge effluents,
and oil spills and clean up techniques on developing eggs.
Establish spill monitoring programs.
c. Regulate lighting near shore (causing hatchling
disorientation), ORV's, foot traffic, beach cleaning
equipment, construction of sea walls and rip-rap,
construction of groins and jetties, and beach nourishment
projects.
d. Inform the public to reduce incidental take, boat collisions
and malicious target shooting.
e. Quantify the nature and extent of predation on major nesting
beaches. Design and implement plans to reduce nest losses to
predators (e.g., in situ screening of nests, aversion
conditioning, egg hatcheries, nest transplants, or predator
reduction programs). Predators may include racoons, rats,
feral hogs, and domestic dogs.
f. Promote legal protection from commercial and private
exploitation both internationally and domestically.
2. Assess and monitor population levels on beaches (standardize
tagging programs; aerial/ground nest surveys; determine
productivity).
3. Mitigate factors affecting estuarine and pelagic mortality and/or
stress.
a. Develop contingency plans to prevent cold-stunning mortality.
Personnel and facilities should be identified for the rapid
rescue and holding of turtles for release when conditions are
favorable.
b. Regulate spoil dumping, oil development, sea floor mining,
trawler tows and any other activities which would disrupt
essential habitat (i.e., grass beds). Discourage effluent
dumping of the petrochemical industy, bilge pumping, and
other industries in estuarine and pelagic areas of turtle
utilization.
c. Regulate methods, gear, areas and seasons of the commercial
fishing industry to prevent incidental take. Develop
resuscitation, handling and relocation methodology for
incidentally caught turtles.
d. Investigate and mitigate mortality from dragheads and
water intakes.
e. Regulate boat speed in areas where collisions with turtles
are a factor.
4. Assess and monitor population levels in estuarine and pelagic
waters (monitor strandings, on-board capture; aerial surveys; and
assess other survey methodologies).
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
Although not specifically mentioned in the Recovery Plan, the use
of land acquisition, easements, cooperative agreements, land use
zoning, etc., to protect nesting beaches is a valuable tool. Also,
fibropappillomas (tumors) have been found common on nesting female
green turtles in Hawai`i. Control of the disease is a high priority
for the Hawaiian population.
A wide variety of actions/programs are underway to mitigate
terrestrial mortality including beach management, predator control,
and regulation of take by humans on an international scale. A number
of educational, conservation, and management institutions at a
multi-national level are functioning at present. Research, and
promoting of TEDs (Trawling Efficiency Devices) continues by NMFS.
Consultation pursuant to Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act by
FWS and NMFS with other Federal agencies is influencing Federal
actions and progress in green turtle habitat.
The United States-Mexican Cooperative Agreement for Wildlife
Conservation was expanded in November, 1984, to include a sub-project
for sea turtles. This agreement is administered in the U.S. by the
Fish and Wildlife Service and in Mexico by the Department of Wildlife
(Departamento de Fauna y Flora Silvestre), and provides for joint
research, management and conservation.
Management Practices - 5 (DRAFT) - References
Species TURTLE, SEA, GREEN
Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
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07 Hildebrand, H.H. 1982. A historical review of the status of sea
turtle populations in the western Gulf of Mexico. Pages 447-453.
IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal, ed.
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08 Doughty, R. 1984. Sea turtles in Texas: A forgotten commerce.
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Novitates No. 1793.
21 Mendonca, M.T. and L.M. Ehrhart. 1982. Activity, population size
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22 Neil, W.T. 1958. The occurrence of amphibians and reptiles in
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23 Hirth, H.F. 1971. Synopsis of biological data on the green sea
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24 Mortimer, J.A. 1982. Feeding ecology of the sea turtles. Pages
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25 Bjorndal, K.A. 1980. Nutrition and grazing behaviour of the green
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26 Ogden, J.C. and S. Williams. 1984. Foraging ecology of the green
turtle (Chelonia mydas L.) in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.
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27 Mortimer, J.A. 1981. The feeding ecology of the west Caribbean
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28 Pritchard, P.C.H. 1982. Recovered sea turtle populations and U.S.
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29 Balazs, G.H. 1982. Growth rates of immature green turtles in the
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30 Carr, A.F. 1980. Some problems in sea turtle ecology. Amer.
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31 Ireland, L.C. 1979. Homing behavior of immatue green turtles.
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32 Carr, A.F. 1967. So excellent a fishe. Natural History Press,
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33 Meylan, A.B., K.A. Bjorndal, and B. Turner. 1983. Sea turtles
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34 Carr, A.F. and R.N. Ingle. 1959. The green turtle (Chelonia
mydas) in Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Caribb. 9(3):315-320.
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36 Rebel, T.P. 1974. Sea turtles and turtle industries of the West
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Species Id ESIS152002
Date 14 MAR 96
Coral Gables, Florida.
37 Mendonca, M.T. 1981. Comparative growth rates of wild immature
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IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal.
Smithsonian Instit., Washington, D.C.
02 Doughty, R. 1984. Sea turtles in Texas: A forgotten commerce.
Southwestern Historical Quarterly 88(1):43-70.
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mydas) in Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Caribb. 9(3):315-320.
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Date 14 MAR 96
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populations and habitats in the western Atlantic. NOAA Tech.
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35 Anon. 1985. Distribution of manatee and sea turtles in Puerto
Rico with emphasis on Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. Dept.
Commerce, Natl. Tech. Info. Serv., PB86151834. On file: U.S. Fish
& Wildl. Serv., Gainesville, FL.
36 Balazs, G.H. 1982. Status of sea turtles in the cental Pacific.
Pages 243-252. IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A.
Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C.
37 Hirth, H.F. 1971. Synopsis of biological data on the green sea
turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus) 1758. FAO Fish. Synop., No. 85.
38 O'Hara, K., N. Atkins, and S.Iudicello. 1986. Marine wildlife
entanglement in North America. Ctr. for Environ. Ed. On file:
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39 Herbst, D. 1987. Pers. knowl. USFWS, Sacramento, CA. 95825.
40 Silander, S. 1987. Pers. knowl. USFWS, Boqueron, PR. 00622.
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