(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
OTHER COMMON NAMES - TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD;LOGGERHEAD;TURTLE, LOGGERHEAD, ATLANTIC;LOGGERHEAD, ATLANTIC;TURTLE, LOGGERHEAD, PACIFIC;LOGGERHEAD and PACIFIC;CABEZON;CAGUAMA;CAOUANE
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Reptiles
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - REPTILIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - TESTUDINES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - CHELONIIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - CARETTA,
SPECIES AND SSP - CARETTA,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - CARETTA CARETTA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Loggerhead Sea Turtle
Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Reptile
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Reptilia
ORDER: Testudines FAMILY: Cheloniidae
The loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, is the largest of all
hard-shelled sea turtles (01). The upper limit of weight is not well
established, but based on calculated weights from skulls now in
museums it must be in excess of 1000 pounds (02). However, in today's
seas a loggerhead of more than 300 pounds is uncommon (02) and Ehrhart
gives an average weight of 255 pounds for adult nesting females in
Florida (03). The loggerhead has a disproportionately large head.
There are two pairs of prefrontal scales on the head. The carapace is
elongate and heart shaped. There are five pairs of costal scutes, the
first of which makes contact with the nuchal. There are three
enlarged poreless inframarginal scutes on the bridge between the
plastron and the carapace. The carapace is reddish brown to brown and
the plastron is yellow or cream color. The species is described fully
in Ernst and Barbour (01) and Carr (02).
The species was originally described by Linnaeus in 1758. No
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
type specimen is known and the original type locality was American
seas. Smith and Taylor (04) restrict the type locality to the Bermuda
Islands. The Indo-Pacific congener is considered a separate
subspecies (04) and designated Caretta caretta gigas Deraniyagala,
1933; the Atlantic subspecies being designated C. c. caretta. A short
synonymy of the loggerhead is as follows:
Testudo caretta Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, Vol. 1, 1758.
p. 197.
Thalassochelys caretta (45).
Caretta caretta Stejneger, Ann. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1902 (1904)
p. 715.
Caretta caretta Carr, Proc. New England Zool. Club, Vol. 21,
1942, p. 5.
The loggerhead sea turtle also may be known by the common names
loggerhead, Atlantic loggerhead turtle, Atlantic loggerhead (43),
Pacific loggerhead turtle, Pacific loggerhead (44), cabezon, caguama,
and caouane.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Threatened
Alabama; Unofficially Listed
Florida; Federal Threatened
Florida; Officially Listed
Georgia; Federal Threatened
Georgia; State Recognized
Louisiana; Federally Threatened
Louisiana; State Recognized
Maryland; Federal Threatened
Maryland; State Listed
Mississippi; State Listed
North Carolina; State Listed
Puerto Rico; State Listed
South Carolina; State Listed
Virgin Islands; Federal Threatened
Virgin Islands; State Recognized
Virginia; State Listed
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
Coded Status
T: Federal Threatened
Commercial
Commercial/consumption
Non-consumptive recreational
Aphrodisiac
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) has been designated a
Threatened species worldwide in tropical and temperate seas and oceans
pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L.
93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. Critical
Habitat has not been designated.
Special rules concerning prohibitions (threatened wildlife),
permits, incidental take, and subsistence take for this species can be
found in 50 CFR 17.42(b). Special Rules for sea turtle permits can be
found in 50 CFR 220 and other prohibitions at 50 CFR 227.
The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, the Marine
Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) of 1972, the Pelly
Amendment ot the Fisherman's Protective Act, the Land and Water
Conservation Fund Act of 1965, and the Coastal Zone Management Act of
1972 all provide or potentially provide protection or management
alternatives for sea turtles. The MPRSA creates marine sanctuaries
out of water areas above the continental shelf. Three sanctuaries
have been designated that potentially protect sea turtle habitat.
Laws and regulations governing administration of the National Wildlife
Refuge System, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Parks
and Seashores, National Park Service, also affect management of these
species on nesting beaches under the jurisdiction of these agencies.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
NMFS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing and
law enforcement/protection of this species while it is
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
at sea. NMFS is the lead agency and has sole
jurisdiction while the species is in the water (50 CFR
222.23(a) and 227.4)
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
NPS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for conservation (Nat. Park System Organic Act - 16
U.S.C. 1, 2-3)/management/recovery on National Park
Service lands. Taking, possessing, or disturbing of
Federally listed species is prohibited on NPS lands
(36 CFR 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).
DOT -Coast Guard, responsible for the law
enforcement/protection of this species with applicable
State and Federal laws on public land under their
control. Also responsible for management/recovery on
Coast Guard lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Alabama
UNOFFICIAL LIST: Endangered. IN: Mount, R.H. 1986.
Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of
special attention. Al. Agric. Exper. Sta.,
Auburn, AL. 124 pp.
STATE: California, Delaware, Georgia, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maine,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Texas, and
Virgin Islands.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Threatened (also TX listed as
Protected Nongame)
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: CA Department of Fish and Game.
DE Dept. Nat. Resour. & Environ. Contam.
GA Department of Natural Resources.
HI Dept. of Land & Natural Resources.
LA Wildlife and Fisheries Commission.
ME Dept. of Inland Fisheries & Wildlife.
MA Dept. Fish., Wildl. & Rec. Vehic.
NH Fish and Game Department.
RI Dept. of Environmental Management,
Division of Fish and Wildlife.
Status - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
TX Parks and Wildlife Department.
VI Dept. Conservation & Cultural Affairs.
STATE STATUTE: CA Coop. Agrmt. between the CA Dept. Fish & Game
and the U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., pursuant to
the Endang. Sp. Act, 1973 and as amended
11-10-78.
DE DE. Code Annot., Title 7, Ch. 6, Sec. 601-604.
GA Endangered Wildl. Act of 1973, Game & Fish
Code, Subsec. 27-3-130 to 27-3-132; and Rules
& Regs. State of Ga., Sec. 391-4-13-.09.
HI HI. Rev. Stat., Subsec. 195D-4, 195D-5;
Administrative Rules of HI, Sec 13-124-3.
LA LA. Stat. Annot. 56:1901 to 56:1907.
ME Rev. Stat. Annot., Title 12, Subsec. 7001,
7751-7756.
MA Nongame Wildlife for Special Consideration in
Mass., Sec. I, 1983.
NH Code of Admin. Rules Fis. 1001.01, 1001.02.
RI Gen. Laws of RI., Subsec. 20-37-1 to 20-37-5.
TX Vernon's TX. Code Annot. Subsec. 68.001 to
68.021; 31 TX Admin. Code, Subsec. 57.131 to
57.136. Also, Sec. 43, 67, and 68 of TX Parks
& Wildl. Code; TX Annot. Code, Sec. 57.133.
VI VI. Code, Sec. 406A, Title 3.
STATE: Connecticut, Florida, Maryland, Mississippi, New York,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.
DESIGNATED STATUS: Threatened
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: CT Dept. of Environmental Protection.
FL Game & Fresh Water Fish Commission.
MD Department of Natural Resources.
MS Department of Wildlife Conservation.
NY Dept. of Envirnomental Conservation.
NC Wildlife Resources Commission.
PR Dept. of Natural Resources.
SC Wildlife & Marine Resources Dept.
VA Commission of Game & Inland Fisheries.
STATE STATUTE: CT CT. Gen. Stat. Annot., Subsec. 26-40d, 26-40e.
FL End. & Thr. Sp. Act of 1977, FL Stat., Sec.
372.072; and Admin. Code, Sec. 39-27.03-.05.
MD MD. Nat. Resour. Code Ann., Subsec. 4-2A-01 to
4-2A-09, 10-2A-01 to 10-2A-09; Code of Md.
Regs. 08.03.01.42, Supp. 4.
MS Public Notice No. 2156, Eff. Sept. 1, 1981.
NY NY. Code, Rules and Regs., 182.5.
NC NC. Gen. Stat. 113-134, 113-132, 143-239;
15 NC Admin. Code, Wildl. Resour. & Water
Safety, Subch. 10I, Endang. & Thr. Species.
PR Organic Act, Sec. 155; and Wildl. Act, Sec. 85
and 91. Reg. to Govern the Mgmt. of Thr. and
Endang. Sp. in the Commonwealth of PR, 1985.
SC SC. Code 50-15, Rule 123-150.
VA Code of VA., Subsec. 29-230 to 29-237.
Status - 4 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
STATE: New Jersey
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered (State listing)
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: NJ Dept. Environmental Protection; Div.
of Fish, Game and Wildlife.
STATE STATUTE: NJ Administrative Code, 7:25-11.2
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) is listed in Appendix
I (Family Chelonidae) of the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) but is not
protected under this convention by France and its trust territories in
the Caribbean because France maintains a "reservation" on this
species, and thus may engage in international trade. It is also
listed in the 1986 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals.
The Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Protection in
the Western Hemisphere (1940 accord, 12 of 35 political entities are
party members to the Convention), and the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979, 22 nations,
U.S. not a signatory) may also influence conservation and management
of sea turtles, but it does not appear on a specific country's list.
In Mexico, sea turtles are protected by the Ley De Desaudlo
Pesquero, May 25, 1972, which authorized establishing seasonal and
catch limits for fish including sea turtles. This law is administered
by the Mexican Department of Fisheries and Department of Wildlife. A
variety of other regulations protect sea turtles in Mexico, both at
sea and on nesting beaches although adequate enforcement resources
remains a problem. Mexico is not a signatory to CITES.
The United States-Mexican Cooperative Agreement for Wildlife
Conservation was expanded in November, 1984, to include a sub-project
for sea turtles. This agreement is administered in the U.S. by the
Fish and Wildlife Service and in Mexico by the Department of Wildlife
(Departamento de Fauna y Flora Silvestre), and provides for joint
research, management and conservation.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
The loggerhead sea turtle has subsistence value for its eggs,
meat, and skin. Although historically exploited commercially for
meat, jewelry, and the curio trade, loggerheads have been used
primarily for their egg harvest. This commercial use continues in
much of their range. The eggs are believed by some to be an
aphrodisiac. As with all sea turtles in Florida, the observation of a
nesting female loggerhead attracts much attention from local residents
as well as tourists.
Status - 5 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
COASTAL
OCEANIC
LAND USE -
Bays and Estuaries
Beaches
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine, subtidal UB
Estuarine, subtidal RF
Estuarine, subtidal RB
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, subtidal UB
Marine, subtidal RF
Marine, subtidal RB
Marine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal UB
Estuarine, subtidal RF
Estuarine, subtidal RB
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, subtidal AB
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, subtidal UB
Marine, subtidal RF
Marine, subtidal RB
Marine, subtidal OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) can live in a variety
of habitats and its optimum requirements have never been determined.
Most investigations have concerned nesting populations. Mortimer (18)
analyzed factors influencing nesting beach selection by turtles. She
found that the offshore approach, the slope of the beach, the height
of the beach platform above high tide, beach front vegetation and the
texture of the sand were obviously characteristic of nesting areas yet
the turtles nested under a wide variety of conditions. The loggerhead
requires a sand beach which is high enough that it is not innundated
by high tides nor soaked by ground water rising from below. In
general, as pointed out by Mortimer (18), the turtles nest in
different types of sand, but they can not cope with numerous
predators. This means that nearly all nesting sites are islands - in
the United States cheifly barrier islands. She concluded that most
likely in the course of the evolutionary history of sea turtles,
biotic factors such as predation and competition were more important
than strictly geological factors.
The preferred foraging habitat of the loggerhead is undetermined.
They are found in a wide variety of habitats from a pelagic exitence
in oceanic waters, to rock reefs in neritic waters, to estuaries where
they may go at least to the limit of tidal influence (01,02).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Sponges
General Fish
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Coelenterata
General Sponges
General Fish
General Arthropods
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Coelenterata
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G
G Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove swamps
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
The loggerhead sea turtle is a carnivore, feeding primarily on
invertebrates which are crushed by its powerful jaws before swallowing
(01,19). In the waters of the United States the loggerhead has three
major feeding strategies. Apparently it is an opportunistic feeder
and can readily change it's diet.
The most common method of feeding is in shallow water on benthic
invertebrates, particularly mollusks, horseshoe crabs (Limulus
polyphemus), barnacles, crustaceans, echinoderms and sponges.
Horseshoe crabs, where available, appear to be the food of choice (19,
20). Most of the mollusks which are eaten appear to be gastropods,
and loggerheads can crush heavy shelled forms such as queen conchs
(Strombus) (19). On reefs off Florida they feed on a variety of
organisms including sponges and brittle stars (19).
A second method of feeding is pelagically on coelenterates
(scyphozoans, Portuguese man-of-war) and salps (05).
The third method of feeding is as a scavenger. Shrimp heads,
fish, crabs, squid and other discards from the shrimp fleet are found
in the stomachs of loggerheads (21). Loggerheads are also known to
accumulate around fish houses and docks where offal from seafood
processing is available.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
The loggerhead is generally considered a wanderer (01,02,22) and
whether it establishes a home range even briefly is not certain.
Territoriality has been described for immature captive loggerheads
while at rest (23). Each captive had its preferred corner of the
tank.
A turtle probably has a preferred feeding area, e.g., the Florida
Keys, but it moves extensively over the feeding grounds.
Loggerheads exhibit moderate to strong philopatry, i.e., they
nest at the same beach throughout their reproductive life with very
little straying (24).
PERIODICITY:
The loggerhead nests at night (02) and probably feeds almost
exclusively during the day (22). The hatchlings emerge from the nest
at night (05).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Loggerheads return to the same beach to renest with very little
straying to other nesting sites (13,25). It is not known if they
return to the natal beach to nest.
Tag returns from Little Cumberland Island, Georgia, (24) have
been analyzed. Loggerheads, after nesting, move northward to Cape
Hatteras and one was captured in New Jersey. Bell and Richardson (24)
suggest a post-nesting migratory route to Cape Hatteras and beyond,
paralleling the Gulf stream. The turtles could stay in the warm
coastal areas from Cape Hatteras to Long Island into the fall. They
postulate that the turtles leave the coastal areas by late fall,
perhaps in a Gulf Stream gyre toward the Sargasso Sea.
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
Meylan, Bjorndal and Turner (25) analyzed tag returns from
loggerheads nesting at Melbourne Beach, FL. They had 34 recaptures
from widely separated areas which indicates the nesting turtles at
Melbourne Beach may be drawn from several foraging areas -
(a) a northward component along the Atlantic seaboard similiar to the
Little Cumberland Island turtles (24); (b) foragers in the Caribbean,
specifically, the Bahama Islands, Dominican Republic and Cuba;
(c) Florida Keys - eastern Gulf of Mexico group; and finally (d) a
non-migratory group that was found hibernating at the Cape Canaveral
ship canal (41) (See "Other Life History Descriptors" below).
A study by Carr (50) confirms that during the turtle's life
cycle, they take a migration route to the waters in and around the
Azores (were they spend time amongst the mats of sargassum), and
eventually several years later end up in U.S. waters (the so called
"lost years").
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
It is assumed that the hatchlings require floating rafts of
sargassum for survival. The number of sightings of loggerheads in
sargassum confirms the use of the habitat by the species (26).
The presence or absence of loggerheads has rarely been related to
the presence or absence of cover, on the other hand it has been
suggested that suitable benthic feeding areas govern its occurrence in
a region (27). In Texas, the subadults are usually found around oil
field platforms, obstructions and rock reefs (28). In the offshore
waters of Hutchinson Island, reefs may be important as refuges for
adults during the internesting period (14).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
The loggerhead requires a sand beach which is high enough that it
is not innundated by high tides nor soaked by ground water rising from
below. In general, as pointed out by Mortimer (18), the turtles nest
in different types of sand, but they can not cope with numerous
predators. This means that nearly all nesting sites are islands - in
the United States chiefly barrier islands.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Age to maturity has not been determined for free-ranging
loggerheads in the United States, but according to Limpus (29)
preliminary estimates in Australia exceed 20 years. Bjorndad's data
suggests 13 years (46). Frazier (30), on the basis of tag returns at
Little Cumberland, Georgia, calculated a maximum reproductive life of
a female loggerhead of 32 years (one turtle had carried a tag for
16 years).
Little is known about mating behavior. At Cape Romain mating
begins before the nesting season and ceases soon after nesting
begins. Some mating also takes place enroute to the nesting grounds
(25). It is probable that the female mates only once a season, but
the question of whether immediate fertilization occurs or there is
long term sperm storage by the female has not been solved (32).
The female goes ashore from 1 to 7 times during a nesting season
to deposit her eggs in a hole which she digs on a high beach (33). A
very small percentage of the loggerheads may nest every year but most
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
females nest every second or third year (33). On Little Cumberland
Island, Georgia, Richardson, et al. (34) give the following
percentages of nesting females that demonstrate a 1, 2, 3, or 4 year
nesting cycle: 1 year - 2.9 percent, 2 years - 55.8 percent,
3 years - 31 percent, 4 years - 7 percent. Average clutch size as
tabulated by Ehrhart (32) for colonies in the southeastern United
States range from 100 to 128 eggs. Caldwell gives an average
incubation time for Cape Romain, SC, rookery of 55 days with a range
of 49-62 days. However, incubation time is temperature dependent and
can be greater than 70 days in N.C. (48).
PARENTAL CARE:
There is no parental care. The eggs are deposited in a hole dug
by the female; the eggs are covered with sand and the female leaves
the area (02).
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Nearly all loggerhead researchers have concentrated their efforts
on the nesting beaches. This has involved counting the number of
clutches, tagging the females and gathering data on hatching success
(10,11,13,14,31). Extensive predation by raccoons has been noted by a
number of authors (10,12) as a limiting factor. There have been a
number of studies on incidental catch in other types of fishing gear
(35,36,37) and there is a concensus among investigators that this is a
major factor in limiting population growth.
Experimental population models have limited usefulness because of
the unreliability of the data upon which they are built. For example,
age to maturity and juvenile survivorship are completely unknown.
Even the data available are gathered from a small portion of the total
nesting population. As pointed out by Richardson and Richardson (38)
these models do provide predictions which can be tested against real
data and they focus attention on needed areas of research.
Attempts have been made to estimate the number of sexually mature
adults by surveys of nesting beaches and assuming a 1:1 sex ratio.
These numbers for Florida are 50,000 (12) and 41,600 (39). Population
status is uncertain (40), Frazier reports a 3 percent decline in
Georgia (47) and Murphy report a 5 percent annual population decline
in South Carolina (49), probably because measures such as predator
control and hatcheries, which increase egg survival, will not show any
increase in the number of adults on the beach for perhaps two decades
or longer.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The main species interrelationship is between man and the
turtles, particularly man's use of fishing gear and his competitive
use of the nesting beach. Nowhere in the literature has any
investigator suggested that the food supply limited the population, or
that loggerheads were emaciated because of a shortage of food.
Three genera of blood flukes have been found in loggerheads. The
genera include Carettacola, Hapalotrema, and Neospirorchis (42).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
In recent years loggerheads have been found to hibernate in the
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
Cape Canaveral ship canal (41). This makes them vulnerable to
dredging operations and to shrimp trawls. It is thought that most
loggerheads migrate to warmer climes (25). It is interesting that
hibernation of loggerheads have not yet been found outside the
original discovery area at Cape Canaveral.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Reducing Urban Light Radiation
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Boating Activities
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Off-Road Vehicles
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Reducing Urban Light Radiation
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Rehabilitating Individuals
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Native Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Off Road Vehicles
Existing Off Road Vehicles
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Recreational development
Existing Recreational development
Adverse Shoreline modification/development
Existing Shoreline modification/development
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
There are few data on the past abundance and distribution of
loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) colonies in the southeastern
United States. The modern period of research started with Caldwell
(05) on loggerheads nesting in Georgia and this work was followed in
the 1960's by investigations in Georgia (06) and in Florida by several
groups (07,08,09,10,11). In general, all agree on what major factors
are adversely affecting the loggerhead. The major problem is to make
coastal development conform to the minimum environmental requirements
of the turtle (12). Developments produce impacts on turtles in a
number of ways:
1. Beach front lighting (from developed areas) discourages
nesting by females and disorients hatchlings so that they cannot find
the sea and die crushed on the roads or from dessicaton (13).
2. Jetties, groins, seawalls or riprap may increase erosion down
current and render the beach unsuitable for nesting (12).
3. Usage of the beach by crowds of people may scare away nesting
turtles, and hatchlings may be trampled or the sand may become so
compacted (from foot traffic or off-road vehicles) over the nest that
hatchlings can not emerge (13).
4. Exotic vegetation may have roots that hinder or prevent the
turtle from constructing an adequate nest cavity, or it may affect the
sex ratio of the developing turtles by altering the natural
temperature regime (15).
5. There are a large number of predators of eggs and hatchlings.
In the United States the worst predator is the raccoon, Procyon lotor.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
6. Incidental catch in all types of fishing gear exacts a heavy
toll, particularly of subadults (16).
Pollutants and their effects on sea turtle have received little
study. Sea turtles do ingest polyethylene bags, and even large sheets
of this plastic (17). The effects of pollutants can be indirect in
that they may harm important food sources of the turtles.
One would expect all impacts so far cited to become worse as
human populations increase in coastal areas. Future problems will
involve sand-budgets of the beaches, particularly as more dams are
built on the rivers. Other problem will be land subsidence due to
excessive pumping of ground water or, in some cases, petroleum, and
rising sea-levels.
APPROVED PLAN:
National Marine Fisheries Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for Marine
Turtles. National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, FL.
355 pp.
The primary objective of the Recovery Plan is to maintain
loggerhead populations at current levels by reducing limiting factors
until a stable or upward trend can be determined, based on the
quantitative criteria listed in the plan.
Efforts to attain this fall into four major categories.
1. Mitigate factors affecting terrestrial mortality and/or stress.
a. Managing and maintaining natural nesting beaches, moving
nests if necessary, remove exotic vegetation (e.g.,
Casuarina) to improve nest excavation and prevent further
spreading by removing seedlings and discouraging plantings.
Although not specified in the Recovery Plan,
revegetating/stabilizing dunes adjacent to nesting beaches
(e.g., with native grasses) is recommended.
b. Regulate petrochemical industry (particularly bilge pumping
and/or effluent dumping) and develop an oil spill contingency
plan for nest protection.
c. Regulate human uses and shoreline development of nesting
beaches. This may include ORV's use, foot traffic, beach
front lighting, beach cleaning equipment, construction of sea
walls and rip-rap, construction of groins and jetties, and
beach nourishment projects. Although not specified in the
Recovery Plan, the use of land acquisition, easements,
cooperative agreements, etc., to protect nesting habitat is
recommended.
d. Inform and educate beach users.
e. Implement nest protection commensurate with the degree of
predation. Screening nests, aversion conditioning,
hatcheries, nest transplants and/or predator (e.g., raccoons
and feral hogs) removal may be needed.
f. Promote legal protection from commercial and private
exploitation both internationally and domestically.
g. Increase active law enforcement to prevent illegal harvest
(commercial and non-commercial) of eggs and adults.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
2. Assess and monitor population levels on beaches
a. Determine hatching success.
b. Tag or mark females.
c. Count and search for nests by air and ground.
3. Mitigate factors affecting marine mortality and/or stress.
a. Develop contingency plans to prevent mortality (i.e.,
procedures for saving cold-stunned turtles).
b. Regulate spoil dumping, sea floor mining, and trawler tows
(use of TEDs - turtle exclusion devices).
c. Regulate petrochemical industry (particularly bilge pumping,
and/or effluent dumping).
d. Promote legal protection throughout the species range.
e. Regulate methods, gear, areas and seasons of commercial
fishing in U.S. and foreign waters.
f. Mitigate mortality from dredge heads and industrial water
intakes.
e. Regulate boat speeds to decrease collision mortality.
4. Assess and monitor estuarine and marine population.
a. Monitor strandings.
b. Monitor incidental captures.
c. Determine feasibility of aerial and other means of at-sea
monitoring.
A wide variety of actions/programs are underway to mitigate
terrestrial mortality including beach management, predator control,
and regulation of take by humans on an international scale. A number
of educational, conservation, and management institutions at a
multi-national level are functioning at present. Research, and
promoting of TEDs (Trawling Efficiency Devices) continues by NMFS.
Consultation pursuant to Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act by
FWS and NMFS with other Federal agencies is influencing Federal
actions and progress in loggerhead turtle habitat.
Management Practices - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Ernst, C.H. and R.W. Barbour. 1972. Turtles of the United States.
Univ. Press of Kentucky.
02 Carr, A.F. 1952. Handbook of turtles: The turtles of the United
States, Canada and Baja California. Comstock Publ. Assoc., Ithaca,
NY.
03 Ehrhart, L.M. 1984. Overview of the biology of the loggerhead,
Caretta caretta, in the western Atlantic Ocean. Pages 87-89. IN:
Symposium on sea turtle research of the western Atlantic
(Populations and socioeconomics). Proc. West. Atl. Symp. Vol. 1.
04 Smith, H.M. and E.H. Taylor. 1950. An annotated checklist and key
to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of the snakes. Bull. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 199.
05 Caldwell, D.K., A. Carr, and L.N. Ogren. 1959. Nesting and
migrations of the Atlantic loggerhead turtle. Bull. Fla. State
Mus. 4(10):295-308.
06 Richardson, J.I., T.H. Richardson, and M.W. Dix. 1978. Population
estimates for nesting female loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta
caretta) in the St. Andrew Sound area of southeastern Georgia, U.S.
Pages 34-38. IN: Proceedings of the Florida & regional conference
on sea turtles, 24-25 July, 1976, Jensen Beach, FL. G.E.
Henderson, ed. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 33.
07 Ehrhart, L.M. and R.G. Yoder. 1978. Marine turtles of Merritt
Island NWR, Kennedy Space Center, Fla. Pp 25-30. IN: Proc. of
FL & Interregion. Conf. on Sea Turtles, 24-25 July, 1976, Jensen
Beach, FL. G.E. Henderson, ed. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 33.
08 Gallagher, R.M., M.L. Hollinger, R.M. Ingle, and C.R. Futch. 1972.
Marine turtles nesting on Hutchinson Island, Florida in 1971. Fla.
Dept. Nat. Res., Mar. Res. Lab. Spec. Sci. Rept. No. 37.
09 Worth, D.F. and J.B. Smith. 1976. Marine turtle nestng on
Hutchinson Island, Fla. in 1973. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 18.
10 Davis, G.E. and M.C. Whiting. 1977. Loggerhead sea turtle nesting
in Everglades National Park, Florida, USA. Herpetologica
33(1):18-28.
11 LeBuff, C.R. 1974. Unusual nesting relocation in the loggerhead
turtle, Caretta caretta. Herpetologica 30:29-31.
12 Lund, F. 1974. Marine turtle nesting in the United States. Rep.
to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
13 Bjorndal, K. and A.B. Meyland. 1983. Sea turtles nesting at
Melbourne Beach, Florida. I. Size growth and reproductive biology.
Biol. Conserv. 26:65-77.
14 Williams-Walls, N., J. O'Hara, R.M. Gallagher, D.F. Worth, B.D.
Perry, and J.R. Wilcox. 1983. Spatial and temporal trends of sea
turtle nesting on Hutchinson Island, Florida 1971-1979. Bull. Mar.
Sci. Gulf & Caribb. 33(1):55-66.
15 National Marine Fisheries Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for Marine
Turtles. Natl. Mar. Fisheries Serv., St. Petersburg, FL. 355 pp.
16 Rabalais, S.C. and N.N. Rabalais. 1980. The occurrence of sea
turtles on the south Texas coast. Contrib. Mar. Sci. 23:123-129.
17 Wehle, D.H.S. and F.C. Coleman. 1983. Plastics at sea. Nat.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
Hist. 1983(2):20-26.
18 Mortimer, J.A. 1982. Factors influencing beach selectin by
nesting sea turtles. Pages 45-51. IN: Biology and conservation
of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian Inst., Wash., D.C.
19 Mortimer, J.A. 1982. Feeding ecology of the sea turtles. Pages
103-109. IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A.
Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C.
20 Lutcavage, M. 1981. The status of marine turtles in Chesapeake
Bay and Virginia coastal waters. M.S. Thesis, Coll. of William &
Mary, VIMS, Gloucester Point, VA.
21 Shoop, C.R. and C. Ruckdeschel. 1982. Increasing turtle stranding
in the southeast United States: A complicating factor. Biol.
Conserv. 23:213-215.
22 Mendoca, M. and L. Ehrhart. 1982. Activity, population size
and structure of immature Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta in
Mosquito Lagoon, Florida. Copeia 1982(1):161-167.
23 Layne, J.N. 1952. Behavior of captive loggerhead turtles, Caretta
caretta caretta (Linnaeus). Copeia 1952(2):115.
24 Bell, R. and J.I. Richardson. 1978. An analysis of tag recoveries
from loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting on Little
Cumberland Island, Georgia. Pp 20-24. IN: Proc. FL & Reg. Conf.
on Sea Turtles, 24-25 July, 1976, Jensen Beach, FL. G.E.
Henderson, ed. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 33.
25 Meylan, A.B., K.A. Bjorndal, and B. Turner. 1983. Sea turtles
nesting at Melbourne Beach, Florida, II. Post-nesting movement of
Caretta caretta. Biol. Conservation 26:79-90.
26 Ogren, L. April, 1985. Personal communication. NMFS Marine
Laboratory, Panama City, Florida.
27 Ross, J.P. 1982. Historical decline of loggerhead, ridley and
leatherback sea turtles. Pages 189-195. IN: Biology and
conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian
Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
28 Hildebrand, H.H. 1982. A historical review of the status of sea
turtle populations in the western Gulf of Mexico. Pages 447-453.
IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal.
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
29 Limpus, C. 1979. Notes on growth rates of wild turtles. Mar.
Turtle Newsletter 10:3-5.
30 Frazer, N.B. 1983. Survivorship of adult female loggerhead sea
turtles, Caretta caretta, nesting on Little Cumberland Island,
Georgia, USA. Herpetologica 39(4):436-447.
31 Caldwell, D.K. 1959. The Atlantic loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta
caretta caretta (L), in America III. The loggerhead turtle of Cape
Romain, South Carolina. Bull. Fla. State Mus. 4(10):319-348.
32 Ehrhart, L.M. 1982. A review of sea turtle reproduction. Pages
29-38. IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A.
Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
33 Frazer, N.B. 1984. A model for assessing mean age-specific
fecundity in sea turtle populations. Herpetologica 40(3):281-291.
34 Richardson, J.I., T.H. Richardson, C. Ruckdeschel, and M.W. Dix.
1978. Remigration patterns of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta
caretta) nesting on Little Cumberland and Cumberland Island,
Georgia. Pp 39-44. IN: Proc. of FL Regional Conf. on Sea
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
Turtles, 24-25 July, 1976, Jensen Beach, FL. G.E. Henderson, ed.
Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 33.
35 Hillestad, H.O., J.L. Richardson, and G.K. Williamson. 1977.
Incidental capture of sea turtles by shrimp trawlermen in Georgia.
NOAA/NMFS. P.O. No. 03-7-042-35129.
36 Ulrich, G.F. 1978. Incidental catch of loggerhead turtles by
South Carolina commercial fisheries. Report to NOAA/NMFS
03-7-042-35151 and 03-7-042-35121.
37 Roithmayr, C. 1980. Incidental catch and mortality surveys. Sea
Turtle Research, Status Rep., Miss. Laboratories. SEFC/NMFS.
38 Richardson, J.I. and T.H. Richardson. 1982. An experimental
population model for the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta).
Pages 165-176. IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A.
Bjorndal. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
39 Carr, D. and P.H. Carr. 1977. Survey and reconnaissance of
nesting shores and coastal habitats of marine turtles in Florida,
Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Report to NOAA/NMFS.
P.O. 03-6-042-35129. St. Petersburg, FL.
40 Mager, A. 1985. Five-year status review of sea turtles listed
under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. NOAA/NMFS.
41 Carr, A.F., L. Ogren, and C. McVea. 1981. Apparent hibernation by
the Atlantic loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, off Cape
Canaveral, Florida. Biol. Conserv. 19:7-14.
42 Wolke, R.E., D.R. Brooks, and A. George. 1982. Spirorchidiasis
in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta): Pathology. Wildl.
Dis. 18(2):175-185.
43 Carter, D.S., Jr. 1975. The Atlantic loggerhead turtle (Caretta
caretta caretta). The Atlantic loggerhead at Hammocks Beach State
Park. Div. Parks Rec., NC Dept. Nat. & Econ. Resour. 13 pp.
44 Guess, R.C. 1981. A Pacific loggerhead captured off California's
northern Channel Islands. Herp. Rev. 12(1):15.
45 Murphy, R.C. 1914. Thalassochelys caretta in the south Atlantic.
Copeia 1914(2).
46 Bjorndal, K. 1987. Pers. comm. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
47 Frazer, N.B. 1986. Survival from egg to adult in a declining
population of loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta. Herp. 42:47-55.
48 Crouse, D.T. 1985. The biology and conservation of sea turtles
in North Carolina. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
49 Murphy, S. 1987. Pers. comm. SC Wildl. and Marine Res. Dept.,
Charleston, SC.
50 Carr, A. 1987. New perspectives on the pelagic stage of sea
turtle development. Conser. Bio. 1:103-121.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Lund, F. 1974. Marine turtle nesting in the United States. Rep.
to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
02 National Marine Fisheries Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for Marine
Turtles. Natl. Marine Fish. Serv.. St. Petersburg, FL. 355 pp.
03 Ross, J.P. 1981. Historical decline of loggerhead, ridley and
leatherback sea turtles. Pages 189-195. IN: Biology and
conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
Inst., Wash., D.C. 583 pp.
04 Ehrhart, L.M. 1984. Overview of the biology of the loggerhead,
Caretta caretta, in the western Atlantic Ocean. Pages 87-89. IN:
Symposium on sea turtle research of the western Atlantic
(Populations and socioeconomics). Proc. West. Atl. Symp. Vol. 1.
05 Hillestad, H.O., J.L. Richardson, and G.K. Williamson. 1977.
Incidental capture of sea turtles by shrimp trawlermen in Georgia.
NOAA/NMFS. P.O. No. 03-7-042-35129.
06 Carr, A.F., A. Meylan, J. Mortimer, K. Bjorndal, and T. Carr.
1981. Survey of sea turtle poulations and habitats in the western
Atlantic. NOAA Tech. Memo., NMFS SEFC-91.
07 Hildebrand, H.H. 1981. A historical review of the status of sea
turtle populations in the western Gulf of Mexico. Pages 447-453.
IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal.
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
08 Jackson, C.G. and M.M. Jackson. 1970. Herpetofauna of Dauphin
Island. Q. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 33(4):281-287.
09 Ogren, L. February, 1985. Pers. comm. NMFS Marine Lab., Panama
City, Florida.
10 Bacon, P. et al., eds. 1984. National report for the country of
the United States. Proc. West. Atl. Turtle Symp. Vol. 3.
Pages 423-488.
11 Davis, G.E. and M.C. Whiting. 1977. Loggerhead sea turtle nesting
in Everglades National Park, Florida. Herpetologica 33:18-28.
12 Huff, et al., eds. 1980. Summary of marine turtle activity in
Florida 1980. Fla. Dept. Nat. Resour. 39 pp.
13 Carr, A.F. and A. Meylan. 1980. Evidence of passive migration of
green turtle hatchlings in sargassum. Copeia 1980(2):366-368.
14 Brongersma, L.D. 1984. Atlantic Ocean crossing and sighting of
sea turtles. Page 252. IN: Symposium on sea turtle research of
the western Atlantic (populations and socioeconomics). Proc.
Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium, Vol. 1.
15 Hildebrand, H.H. 1981. A historical review of the status of sea
turtle populations in the western Gulf of Mexico. Pages 447-453.
IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A. Bjorndal.
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
16 Fritts, T.H. 1982. Turtles, birds, and mammals in the northern
Gulf of Mexico and nearby Atlantic waters. U.S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv., Off. Biol. Serv., Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-82/65.
17 Shoop, C., T. Doty, and N. Bray. 1981. Sea turtles in the region
between Cape Hatteras and Nova Scotia in 1979. Pages 1-85. IN:
A characterization of marine mammals and turtles in the Mid- and
North Atlantic areas of the U.S. outer continental shelf: Annual
report for 1979. Univ. Rhode Is., Kingston.
18 Mendoca, M. and L. Ehrhart. 1982. Activity, population size
and structure of immature Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta in
Mosquito Lagoon, Florida. Copeia 1982(1):161-167.
19 Lutcavage, M. and J.A. Musick. 1985. Aspect of the biology of sea
turtles in Virginia. Copeia 1985(2):449-456.
20 Carr, A.F. 1952. Handbook of turtles: The turtles of the United
States, Canada and Baja California. Comstock Publ. Assoc., Ithaca,
NY.
21 Caldwell, D.K. 1959. The Atlantic loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta
References - 4 (DRAFT) - References
Species TURTLE, SEA, LOGGERHEAD
Species Id ESIS152004
Date 14 MAR 96
caretta caretta L., in America III. The loggerhead turtle of Cape
Romain, South Carolina. Bull. Fla. State Mus. 4(10):319-348.
22 Schwartz, F. February, 1985. Pers. comm. Univ. NC, Chapel Hill.
23 Lazell, J.D. 1980. New England waters: Critical habitat for
marine tutles. Copeia 1980(2):290-295.
24 Guess, R.C. 1981. A Pacific loggerhead captured off California's
northern Channel Islands. Herp. Rev. 12(1):15.
25 Balazs, G.H. 1979. Loggerhead turtle recovered from a tiger shark
at Kure Atoll. 'Elepaio 39(12):145-147.
26 Balazs, G.H. 1982. Status of sea turtles in the cental Pacific.
Pages 243-252. IN: Biology and conservation of sea turtles. K.A.
Bjorndal, ed. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 583 pp.
27 Hildebrand, H.H. 1985. Pers. knowl. Corpus Christi, TX 78418.
28 O'Hara, K., N. Atkins, and Iudicello, S. 1986. Marine wildlife
entanglement in North America. Center for Environ. Ed. On file:
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Div. Endang. Sp. and Hab. Conserv.,
Wash., D.C. 20240.
29 Carr, A. 1987. New perspective on the pelagic stage of sea
turtle development. Conser. Bio. 1:103-121.
References - 5