(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
OTHER COMMON NAMES - SALAMANDER, BLIND and TEXAS
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Amphibians
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AMPHIBIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CAUDATA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - PLETHODONTIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - TYPHLOMOLGE,
SPECIES AND SSP - RATHBUNI,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - TYPHLOMOLGE RATHBUNI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Texas Blind Salamander
Typhlomolge rathbuni Stejneger, 1896
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Amphibian
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Amphibia
ORDER: Caudata FAMILY: Plethodontidae
The following description is from Stejneger (01):
"Head excessively large and broad, the distance from tip of snout to
base of upper gill-branch slightly less than distance between
axilla and groin, its width equal to one half the latter distance;
snout very much depressed, broad, truncated, nearly square
anteriorly; nostrils widely separated at the corners of the
truncated snout, their distance greater than that between the eyes,
which are deeply hidden under the skin and only visible as two dark
spots; mouth comparatively small, with strongly developed labial
lobes; body short and slender, the distance between axilla and groin
being slightly greater than the length of head and only half the
length of the tail, its width being much less than that of the
snout; limbs excessively slender and long, of nearly even length,
about one-fifth of the total length; fingers over-lapping knee and
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
toes overlapping elbow when adpressed to the sides of the body;
fingers four, toes five, short, slender, free, with rounded tips,
their relative length variable; tail comparatively long, nearly
one-half the total length, much compressed, finned below and
particularly strongly above, the end pointed."
Skin smooth; a very strongly marked gular fold; a well marked
vertebral groove; eleven costal groves. Teeth on intermaxillaries
and mandible small; the vomero-palatine teeth large, decreasing in
size at both ends. Gill branches long and slender, the middle one
longer; fimbriae long and slender, not bushy. Color nearly white,
semi-transparent, the upper surfaces densely sprinkled with minute
pale gray dots.
Dimensions (mm) - Total length 102; from snout to anus, 53; from
snout to gular fold, 16; from snout to beginning of upper gill
branch, 22; width of head, 13; width of snout, 9; distance between
nostrils, 7; distance between eyes, 6; distance between axilla and
groin, 25; fore limb, 20; hind limb, 20; longest finger, 2 2.3;
longest toe, 2.5; width of limbs, 1.7 (11).
Stejneger (01) was the first to describe the blind salamander,
Typhlomolge rathbuni, from specimens in the U.S. National Museum.
The type specimen from which the species was described is
No. 22686 USNM. Emerson (02) described the general anatomy of this
species and Eigenmann (03) described what he termed degenerative
evolution. Hilton (04) described the skeletal structure of the
blind salamander, and Dundee (05) described induced partial
metamorphosis. In 1965 Mitchell and Reddell (06) proposed the
removal of Typhlomolge to the genus Eurycea. Wake (07) stated that
both Eurycea and Typhlomolge developed from the same ancestor,
a Pro-Eurycea and, for this reason suggested retention of the genus
Typhlomolge. Brandon (08,09,10) also supported retention of
Typhlomolge. Clerque-Gazeau (11), however, used the genus Eurycea.
Potter and Sweet (13) in 1981 have stated that existing
morphological evidence is inadequate to resolve the status of the
genus Typhlomolge.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Texas blind salamander (Typhlomolge rathbuni) has been
designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884;
16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status
wherever found, including the State of Texas.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or
result in the destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat
(50 CFR 402), and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs
for the conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Texas
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department
STATE STATUTE: Texas Parks and Wildlife Code, Sec. 43, 67,
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
and 68.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Texas blind salamander is listed as Endangered by the U.S.
in the Western Hemisphere Convention Annex (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
This species has value as a component of Texas's natural
heritage of biological diversity.
67/03/11:32 FR 40001/ - Listed as Endangered
79/05/21:44 FR 29566/29577 - Status review
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - 5-year review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
Herbaceous Rangeland
Streams and Canals
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, intermittent UB
Riverine, intermittent RB2
Riverine, intermittent RB1
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, upper perennial RB2
Riverine, upper perennial RB1
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Texas blind salamander is aquatic throughout life, living in
interconnected, water-filled cavernous areas in the San Marcos pool
of the Edwards Aquifer, Hays County, Texas. The salamander travels
along ledges and occassionally swims in deep pools, then settling to
the bottom (11,12).
Longley (11) reports this species from Johnson's Well, Primer's
Fissure, Ezell's Cave, Wonder Cave, an unnamed artesian well, San
Marcos Spring, Rattlesnake Cave (developed on the edge of two
collapsed sinks) (12, 14). These sites represent a stretch of about
four kilometers known as the San Marcos Pool at the northern end of
the Edward's Aquifer. According to Longley (11) this salamander is
probably restricted to an area of about 10,342 hectares most of which
is located directly below the city of San Marcos, Texas.
The San Marcos area lies along the edge of the coastal plain
between Austin and San Antonio, Texas. Two miles north of San
Marcos, the Blanco River flows from the Edwards Plateau and connects
to the San Marcos River which emanates from the San Marcos Springs,
now developed into a tourist attraction. Two smaller streams
(normally dry), Sink Creek and Purgatory Creek, form wide valleys
extending to the north and along the south of San Marcos. Johnson's
Well and Primer's Fissure (Well) are in the Purgatory Creek channel
(12). Elevations in the San Marcos area range from 550 feet to 1000
feet in the hills west of San Marcos. The area receives about 33
inches of rain per year (which varies widely) and has an average
temperature of 68 deg. F (12).
Sissom and Davis (14) have measured some of the chemical and
physical parameters of Ezell's Cave. Water temperature varied from
a low of 21 deg. C to a high of 22 deg. C with a yearly average of
21.4 deg. C. Dissolved oxygen ranged from 4.42 mg/l to 4.96 mg/l
with an average of 4.70 mg/l. Phenolpthalein alkalinity was
constantly zero throughout the study period. Methyl orange
alkalinity ranged from 236 mg CaCOs/l to 257 mg CaCOO3/l with a
yearly average of 249 mg CaCO3/l; pH increased from a low of 6.9 in
July of 1978 to a high of 7.4 in July 1979. Free CO2 decreased from
a high of 52 mg/l in July of 1978 to a low of 19 mg/l in
July of 1979. Nitrates varied from a low of 2.5 mg NO3-N/l to a high
of 4.4 mg NO3-N/l with an average of 3.36 mg NO3-N/l. Nitrite
Habitat Associations - 1 nitrogen averaged 0.024 mg NO2-N/l and 0.022 mg NO2-N/l. Organic
nitrogen, measured by the Kjedahl method, averaged 0.013 mg N/l.
Total phosphorous increased from 10 mg P/l in July 1978 to 50 mg P/l
in January 1979. Sulfate averaged 31.4 mg/l and chloride values
varied less than 2 mg/l. Magnesium averaged 16.2 mg/l and iron
averaged 0.016 mg/l. Calcium averaged 109 mg/l. Water level varied
with rainfall. For example, water level rose 13 cm following a
rainfall of 8.5 cm. Water was usually turbid and contained epigean
organism following these abrupt heavy rains.
Surface lands are primarily mixed urban development, and
herbaceous rangeland.
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Zooplankton
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Terrestrial Features: Caves, wet
G
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
According to Longley (11) both juvenile and adult blind
salamanders feed on any small organism with which they come into
contact. The blind shrimp (Palaemonetes antorum) and the larger
amphipods are the primary food of larger blind salamanders while
young salamanders feed on copepods. Both young and older salamanders
feed on hydrobiid snails. Longley (11) notes that the
salamanders search for prey with lateral movements of the head.
Observations in Ezell's Cave, Primer's Well, and Rattlesnake
Cave, indicate the salamanders are quite active, frequently swimming
in open water, and spend most of the time searching for food along
walls and floors, and in crevices around rocks (12). These large
voids tend to concentrate organic food materials.
The specialized method of hunting prey involves gliding slowly
through the water, probing nooks and cracks. When the prey is
disturbed by the snout, the salamander senses movement, quickly
opens its mouth, and sucks the prey inside where it is impaled on
the needle-like teeth (12). The wide mouth, an adaptation by natural
selection, facilitates capture of prey. Quiet water is apparently
necessary for this type of hunting technique since water current might
inhibit the detection and capture of prey (12). In aquaria with
rapid aeration they have no problem finding prey (and current is
considerable there) (16).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
No information exists on home range or territoriality for the
Texas blind salamander.
PERIODICITY:
Studies by Longley have not given any indication of periodicity
(16).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
No information exists on migration patterns of the Texas blind
salamander.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Longley (11) noted that this salamander is especially
susceptible to predation when it leaves its cave environments (i.e. is
expelled from the spring openings into the surface waters).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Longley (11) indicated that very little is known about
reproductive activity of the the Texas blind salamander including
reproductive site requirements. Eggs are laid individually on
substrate and airstones in aquaira (16).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Longley (11) states that reproduction within this species may be
similar to that of other Eurycea. If this is the case the male will
deposit several spermatophores which are then picked up by the female
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
with the lips of her cloaca. The gelatinous cap of the spermatophore
is then dissolved in the cloaca and the sperm migrates to the female
spermatheca. Age at sexual maturity has not been determined. In
addition, it is very difficult to sex animals less than 3 cm long.
Based on the capture of juveniles throughout the year, reproduction
appears to take place year-round.
David M. Seven from St. Marys's College, Notre Dame, Indiana, has
related to me that the sexas may be distinguised quickly by
anesthetizing them (dilute ether) and spreading the cloacal lips
slightly with watchmaker forceps (females - dark pigment patch
(representing the spermatheca) is visable) (males - have an
unpigmented cloaca). Dave Bechler at Lamar University in Beaumont,
Texas, has observed a female picking up a spermatophore that had been
deposited on the floor of an aquarium. Bechler also observed mating
behavior of tail wagging prior to this activity (Longley has also
observed this same activity). Work by Maruska at the Cinicinati Zoo
has led to the production of numerous offspring. In three different
females the following numbers of eggs were deposited:
DATE: # of EGGS:
12/10/79 19 eggs deposited hatched in 27-35 days
(hatchlings <10 mm)
1/5-6/80 8 eggs deposited
10/24/80 21 eggs deposited hatched in 19-33 days
(in 20-21 deg. C)
Eggs are variable in size 3.3 x 5.0 mm to 5.0 x 5.9 mm. When
hatchlings are fed newly hatched brine shrimp they grow rapidly.
Maruska has been able to get reproduction from 2nd generation
salamanders that he reared from the original six he had in 1979. (16)
PARENTAL CARE:
There is little information on the reproductive behavior of
this species but, based on observations from studies of congeners,
there is little likelihood of any parental care.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Longley (11) made population estimates based on the assumption
that a random number of this species were being ejected from
springs. Longley estimated that 13 salamanders were ejected from
San Marcos Springs each day or 4,745 a year. This is indicative of
a very large subterranean population.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
In their study of Ezell's Cave, Sissom and Davis (14) found
the Texas blind salamander in association with organisms
representing 5 phyla, 12 classes, 40 orders, 73 families, 90 genera,
and 76 species. These species include a 1 turbellarian,
4 gastropods, 1 oligochaete, 6 crustaceans, 4 diploids, 1 chilopod,
10 arachnids, 23 insects, 1 osteichthys, 3 amphibians, 1 reptile,
and 4 mammals. In addition, these species were composed of 34
accidental, 25 trogloxenes, 22 troglophiles, 16 troglobites, and
1 orach of unknown status.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
Internal parasites found in the salamander include
Capillaria sp. (eggs in feces), Hexamita sp. (in gut),
Neoechinorhynchus (cylindratus?) (gravid females in gut and bo
cavities (Acanthocephala), and digenetic trematode (with eggs in gut)
(11). In subterranian habitats T. rathbuni is the top predator.
However, when it is brought to the surface (via pumping), it is easy
prey for sunfish, and other fish and nekton (11).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
No information exists on other life history descriptors.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling water levels
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Spelunking
Existing Spelunking
Adverse Food Supply Reduction
Existing Food Supply Reduction
Adverse Groundwater drawdown
Existing Groundwater drawdown
Adverse Irrigating
Existing Irrigating
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The Texas blind salamander is restricted to a small, heavily
populated area (approx. 40 sq. miles) around San Marcos, Hays Co.,
Texas. At the time of listing of the species (1967) the animal was
known only from a few localities. Primer's well had not been visited
for some years, the well in Wonder Cave was closed, the salamander
was only occassionally seen in Ezell's Cave, and salamanders were
not seen being washed from the Artesian Well (this is due to no one
sampling properly (16)). However, once Ezell's Cave was purchased by
The Nature Conservancy, renewed interest led to discoveries of other
flourishing populations (12).
Much of the habitat is beneath the city of San Marcos and is
vulnerable to local changes that could adversely impact the habitat.
Urban pollution (e.g., discharge of sewage and industrial wastes and
storm sewer runoff) especially in Sink and Purgatory Creeks, and
groundwater drawdown of the Edwards Aquifer are two particularly
serious future threats (12). Withdrawals for irrigation, industrial
and munincipal use have increased such that recharge to the aquifer
may not be sufficient in dry years. This could destroy the habitat of
the salamander and increase the effects of pollution (12).
Longley (11) lists the primary decline of this species in
Ezell's Cave (this site only) as over-collecting. Additional causes
of decline in Ezell's Cave include the decrease in the population of
bats providing feces as nutrient and detritus to the system, loss of
input of other organic matter, and the toxic effect of carbide left
by spelunkers causing the salamanders to avoid an otherwise
preferred area.
It is important to note that Longley (11) states that the
conditions effecting Ezell's Cave are applicable only to that site
and do not reflect the status of the salamander population in
general. Longley (11) feels that population size and age structure
are indicative of a healthy, expanding population.
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
No Recovery Plan has been developed for the Texas Blind
Salamander. However, because of the species proximity to the San
Marcos ecosystem, reference to the San Marcos Recovery Plan (15) would
be appropriate.
The Texas blind salamander spends its entire life underground in
the pools of the Edwards Aquifer. Drastic declines in numbers of the
species at Ezell's Cave, Hays Co., Texas, in the late 1960's lead to
its inclusion on the Endangered Species list. Longley (11)
attributes this decline to collecting, which has been controlled
since the cave was purchased by The Nature Conservancy. He felt that
though the species had a restricted range, populations were healthy
and not in danger of extinction.
Survival of this species is tied to the continued quality of the
Edwards Aquifer. This aquifer is receiving increased use as human
populations grow on the Edwards Plateau. Continued growth and
resulting aquifer use by urban populations as well as agriculture has
caused decreased flows of the springs, and as human populations
become large, groundwater levels will continue to decline.
Eventually some adjacent water bearing strata will contribute greater
quantities of water to this area. Some of the adjacent aquifers,
especially to the south, contain water of poorer quality (i.e., high
in salts or sulfur compounds). Decreasing water quality could impact
both the Texas blind salamander and its prey. Monitoring of water
levels and quality in the Edwards Aquifer seems advisable, as does
regular sampling of the species and its prey. Since the recovery
plan for the four Threatened and Endangered San Marcos River species
calls for possible augmentation of the Edwards Aquifer recharge,
controls on the groundwater pumping of the aquifer, and preparation
of water wells to ensure continued flow of the river, impacts on the
Texas blind salamander should also be considered before pursuing any
of these activities.
Longley (11) discovered much about the ecology of the
salamander. Efforts should continue to identify individual and
population characteristics including: 1) food habits; 2)reproductive
parameters; 3) survivorship patterns; and 4) diseases and parasites
of the species. The Texas blind salamander should be provided the
full protection mandated by Federal and Texas laws. Finally, public
awareness of the salamander should be increased through information
pamphlets, news releases, and public involvement. These activities
could be tied to the San Marcos Ecosystem publicity.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Stejneger, L. 1896. Description of a new genus and species of
blind, tailed batrachian from the subterranean waters of Texas.
Proc. Nat. Mus. 18:619-621.
02 Emerson, E.T. 1905. General anatomy of Typhlomolge rathbuni.
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 32:43-76.
03 Eigenmann, C.H. 1909. Cave vertebrates of America: A study in
degenerative evolution. Publ. Carnegie Inst. Wash. 104:1-41.
04 Hilton, W.A. 1945. The skeletons of Typhlomolge and
Haideotriton. J. Ent. and Zool. 37:100-102.
05 Dundee, H.A. 1957. Partial metamorphosis induced in Typhlomolge
rathbuni. Copeia (1):52-53.
06 Mitchell, R.W. and J.R. Redell. 1965. Eurycea tridentifera, a
new species of troglobitic salamander from Texas and a
reclassification of Typhlomolge rathbuni. Texas J. Sci. 17:12-27.
07 Wake, D.B. 1966. Comparative osteology and evolution of the
lungless salamanders, family Plethodontidae. Mem. Southern Calif.
Acad. Sci. 4:1-111.
08 Brandon, R.A. 1971. North American troglobitic salamanders:
Some aspects of modification in cave habitats with special
reference to Gyrinophilus palleucus. Bull. Nat. Speleol.
Soc. 33:1-21.
09 Brandon, R.A. 1971. Correlation of seasonal abundance with
feeding and reproductive activity in the grotto salamander
(Typhlotriton spelaeus). Amer. Mid. Nat. 86:93-100.
10 Brandon, R.A. 1973. Optomotor response and eye structure of the
troglobitic salamander Gyrinophilus palleucus. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 89:467.
11 Longley, Glenn. 1977. Status of Typhlomolge (=Eurycea) rathbuni,
the Texas blind salamander. Rep. on file with the U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, N.M.
12 Russell, William. 1976. Distribution of troglobitic salamanders
in the San Marcos area Hays County, Texas. BITE Rep. 7601.
Texas Assoc. for Biol. Investigations of Troglobitic Eurycea.
Univ. TX, Austin.
13 Potter, Floyd E., Jr. and Samuel Sweet. 1981. Generic boundaries
in Texas cave salamanders, and a redescription of Typhlomolge
robusta (Amphibia: Plethodontidae). Copeia 1981(1):64-75.
14 Sissom, Stanley L. and James C. Davis. [n.d.] A monographic study
of Ezell's Cave Hays County, Texas. Rep. on file with the U.S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv., Off. of Endg. Sp., Wash., D.C.
15 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. The San Marcos recovery
plan for San Marcos River endangered and threatened species.
Prepared by the San Marcos Rcovery Team. U.S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv., Albuquerque, NM. 109 pp.
16 Longley, Glenn. 1987. [Letter of June 12, 1987, to Sally
Stefferud, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, NM.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species SALAMANDER, BLIND, TEXAS
Species Id ESIS202002
Date 14 MAR 96
01 Longley, G. 1977. Status of Typhlomolge (=Eurycea) rathbuni,
the Texas blind salamander. Rep. on file with the U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, New Mexico. 76 pp.
02 Russell, William. 1976. Distribution of troglobitic salamanders
in the San Marcos area Hays County, Texas. BITE Rep. 7601.
Texas Assoc. for Biol. Investigations of Troglobitic Eurycea.
Univ. TX, Austin.
References - 2