(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
OTHER COMMON NAMES - SALAMANDER and RED HILLS
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Amphibians
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - AMPHIBIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - CAUDATA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - PLETHODONTIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PHAEOGNATHUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - HUBRICHTI,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PHAEOGNATHUS HUBRICHTI
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Red Hills Salamander
Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton, 1961
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Amphibian
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Amphibia
ORDER: Caudata FAMILY: Plethodontidae
The Red Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton 1961 is
a fairly large species attaining a maximum total length of about
255 mm (ca. 10 in). The elongate body has 20-22 costal grooves, with
12 or more intercostal folds between adpressed limbs (front limbs bent
backward, hindlimbs forward). The limbs are noticeably short. The
color of the body and tail is uniform dark brown to dark gray,
although irregular fading in preserved animals may produce a
bi-colored effect.
There is currently no disagreement on taxonomic allocation on
this form, but its relationship to other genera within the subfamily
Desmognathinae remains unclear (06,13,15).
The type specimen is housed in the United States National Museum
(USNM), No. 142486, a photograph of which appears with the original
description (06). Other important descriptive information has been
provided by Valentine (13) and Jordan (07).
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
Numerous works, other than the aforementioned, provide
photographs or illustrations of the species (01,06,09,10). Several
museums have one or more specimens of P. hubrichti, including USNM,
Ohio State University, Alabama Museum of Natural History, and Southern
Illinois (Carbondale) Vertebrate Museum. The most extensive
collection, to the author's knowledge, is maintained at the Auburn
University Museum of Vertebrate Zoology.
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Threatened
Alabama; State Listed
Alabama; Unofficially Listed
T: Federal Threatened
Non-consumptive recreational
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Red Hills salamander (Phaeognathus hubrichti) has been
designated a Threatened species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act
of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C.
1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status wherever found
including the State of Alabama.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD (COE) -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Alabama
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
DESIGNATED STATUS: Nongame Wildlife Species
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Div. of Game and Fish
STATE STATUTE: Game and Fish Reg. 87-GF-7.
UNOFFICIAL LISTS: Endangered, Bulletin No.2, , Endangered and
Threatened Plants and Animals of Alabama,
Alabama Museum of Natural History;
Threatened Vertebrate Wildlife of Alabama,
Agric. Exp. Station, Auburn Univ., Alabama;
Priority Four, An Initial Prioritization of
Alabama's Natural Heritage Elements, Alabama
Natural Heritage Program, May 1984.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
None.
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
There are no commercial values for the Red Hills salamander.
However, the species serves as a unique source of genetic material,
as a biological indicator, and it enhances the diversity of the
ecosystem in which it occurs.
75/10/01:40 FR 45175/ - Proposed rule
76/12/03:41 FR 53032/53034 - Listed as Threatened
81/02/27:46 FR 14652/14658 - Five year status review
87/07/07:52 FR 25523/25528 - Notice of review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTRY TYPES
SAF TYPE STAGE CLOSURE
Shortleaf Pine-Oak young tree
Shortleaf Pine-Oak mature tree
Shortleaf Pine-Oak Old Growth
young tree
mature tree
Old Growth
LAND USE -
Deciduous Forest Land
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Phaeognathus is a burrower and is usually found on mesic ravine
slopes and bluffsides dominated by hardwood trees (04,05,08,11,14).
The only conifer frequently associated with its habitats in their
relatively natural states is the spruce pine (Pinus glabra). Loblolly
pine (Pinus taeda) occurs on occasion, but the presence of loblolly
pine needles as major components of the forest floor leaf litter is
usually contraindicative of the species' presence (16).
The presence of an outcropping of siltstone or claystone, or an
underlying layer of one of these materials, is apparently a requsite
(07,11). A loamy, friable topsoil characterizes most sites inhabited
by Phaeognathus (08,11), although this may be underlain almost
immediately by clay or weathered siltstone (16). Ground-dwelling
arthropods are abundant (07). Burrow openings are usually situated on
microsites sufficiently steep to prevent accumulation of leaf litter
(07,14). The burrows are often branched and tend to follow root
tracings and cracks in the siltstone.
The greatest population densities tend to occur on relatively
undisturbed sides of high bluffs and steep ravine slopes along the
northern edge of the Tallahatta Formation. These are often associated
with rivers, large creeks, and their major tributaries (04,05).
Forests with complete or nearly complete groups of individuals can
occasionally be found in moist, sheltered situations where heavy
logging apparently has eliminated populations in the immediate
vicinity (04,05).
Generally, when intervening uplands between slopes are extensive,
habitat conditions on the slopes are more suitable than on slopes
associated with narrow, finger-like ridges (04,05). The differences
in quality are probably associated with differences in susceptibility
to drought (16).
Few quantitative data on habitat parameters are available, but
the information at hand strongly indicates that the most important
limiting factors for the species ultimately are humidity, soil
temperature, and food supply, in that order (16).
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Molluscs
General Amphibia
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Terrestrial Features: Burrows
G Terrestrial Features: Talus
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Brandon (02) analyzed gut contents of 13 Phaeognathus captured at
the mouths of their burrows and found snails, millipedes, beetles, and
Hymenoptera (mainly ants), in addition to "insects, miscellaneous
larvae", and one mite and one fly, respectively, in two specimens.
Phaeognathus will readily feed on spiders and crickets in the natural
habitat (16) and Jordan (07) saw one individual in the field capture
and consume a roach and another attempt to capture a long-horned
grasshopper, but succeeded only in securing a leg, which it swallowed.
He also noted that Phaeognathus could be induced to eat juvenile slimy
salamanders, Plethodon glutinosus, when placed near the mouth of the
burrow (two occasions). Jordan (07) maintained Phaeognathus in the
laboratory on a diet of arthropods, including mealworms, crickets,
and spiders; he was able in some instances to induce captives to
accept "bits of liver".
Brandon (02) believed that Phaeognathus depends on surface
feeding, but Jordan's observations (07) led him to believe that food
captured within the burrow systems constitutes an important source.
HOME/RANGE TERRITORY:
Whether P. hubrichti is territorial or not is unknown. Home
range size is also unknown, although Jordan's observations indicate
that the animals tend to be rather sedentary. Our knowledge of the
anatomy, habits, and habitat requirements of Phaeognathus suggest that
low vagility is a species characteristic (16).
Based on observations by Jordan (07), French (04), and (16), it
strongly appears that Phaeognathus dispersion within a given tract of
habitat that superficially seems suitable is not random; rather, the
individuals tend to be clustered. In most cases, when one burrow is
located, two or more can be found within a short distance (2-5 m).
Jordan (07) implied that the clustering effect reflected the
irregularity of the distribution of optimum microhabitat, especially
with respect to occurrence and proximity to the surface of siltstone
or claystone.
PERIODICITY:
The most intensive study of this aspect of the natural history of
Phaeognathus is that of Jordan (07). Appearances at the mouths of the
burrows is almost always at night, although some have been seen during
the day and during crepuscular evening hours. Warm (65-75 degrees F),
humid, dark nights tend to induce appearances at the surface,
especially when such nights are preceded by late afternoon or early
evening showers. Activity at the burrow entrance ceases, however,
during rain, but may resume afterward. Moonlight inhibits surface
appearances, as does extreme drought (16). With respect to the lunar
cycle, Jordan (07) observed the greatest activity at the surface prior
to moonrise during full-moon phase.
On a seasonal basis, Phaeohnathus is active year-round when
conditions are favorable. Jordan (07) found no indications of
activity, however, during the winter when soil temperatures dropped
below 40 degrees F.
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Phaeognathus hubrichti is apparently non-migratory (07).
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Forest cover and other shelter requirements (e.g. siltstone
outcrops) for Phaeognathus vary according to the directional aspect of
the slopes inhabited, local moisture conditions, and topographic
considerations that affect moisture and temperature (04,05). Complete
removal of the forest cover apparently renders an area uninhabitable
in every case (04,05,08). South-facing slopes require more extensive
cover than north-facing slopes for maintenance of habitat suitablity
(04,05). Populations are often eliminated on the former by heavy
selective cutting, whereas such cutting on the latter usually permits
some survival (04,05). On the other hand, even limited selective
cutting on some marginal sites, regardless of the directinal aspect,
could cause severe damage and possible extirpation of the populations
(04,05). Because of the numerous variables associated with shelter
requirements, quantification of such requirements can be made only by
an authority on the species on a site-by-site basis (16).
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Nothing is known of courtship, mating, or nesting site
requirements of Phaeognathus in nature (07).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Few data are available on reproduction in this species.
Observations by Brandon (02) and Schwaner and Mount (11) suggest that
most oviposition occurs during the spring but that it may extend into
late summer. These studies indicate that the usual egg complement is
low, ranging from four to nine. Brandon and Maruska (03), however,
reported a clutch of 16 sterile eggs laid by a female that had been a
captive for nearly six years. This number may be abnormally high.
Natural nests are unknown, but every indication is that they are
subterranean, and that the life history does not include an aquatic
stage (16).
PARENTAL CARE:
Nothing is known.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Relatively little is known of the population biology of the
species. Jordan (07) found an average of 42.6 individuals inhabiting
a 6.5 acre tract of good habitat during a two and a half year period.
This density is about average for good habitat in most parts of the
range (16). One census taken during the period revealed that 26 were
females, 18 were males, and 4 were small juveniles of undetermined
sex. Jordan also noted that of 79 Phaeognathus collected over a
period of six years by himself and other investigators who published
their results, only 6 were juveniles, suggesting that reproductive
success is relatively low.
Limiting factors are believed to be for the most part those that
relate to moisture, soil temperature, and food availability, in that
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
order. (See Habitat Associations)
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Available information is based on speculation and circumstantial
evidence. The low reproductive potential suggests a low rate of
predation (07). As a generally opportunistic feeder (07), it would
appear that there are no strong interspecific relationships with
respect to food consumed.
Gut parasites (worms) were found in all 13 specimens examined
internally by Brandon (02), but the salamanders were all in apparently
healthy condition.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Existing Rural Residential/Industrial Areas
Adverse Highway/Railroads
Existing Highway/Railroads
Adverse Transmission Lines/Towers
Existing Transmission Lines/Towers
Adverse Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Existing Soil compaction by heavy equipment in mine areas
Adverse Strip mining
Existing Strip mining
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse
Existing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
Adverse Harvesting
Existing Harvesting
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Phaeognathus hubrichti has a very small range, exists in
relatively low numbers in scattered populations, is extremely habitat
specific, and has a very low reproductive potential (04,05,08,11).
The amount of suitable habitat within the range is believed to have
declined within the past 20 years chiefly as a result of forestry
practices that involve at least one or more of the following: (1)
clear-cutting of the forests, (2) intensive mechanical
site-preparation prior to reforestation, or (3) conversion of hardwood
or mixed forests to pine forests (04,05,08,11,16).
Other losses have resulted from agriculture, road construction,
and clearing forests for utility lines and residences (16).
Collecting and attempting to collect by excavation have harmed at
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
least one population and its habitat. Natural phenomena that cause
harm include erosion and sloughing of bluffsides (04,05).
Possible future threats, in addition to those already mentioned,
include increased herbicide usage, any practice that alters natural
moisture regimes, and mining of lignite deposits, which underlie
virtually the entire range of P. hubrichti (16).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Red Hills Salamander Recovery
Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 23 pp.
The following tasks comprise the recovery effort presented in the
approved Red Hills salamander Recovery Plan.
Task 1. Habitat re-assessment
The habitat needs to be mapped and categorized into four classes:
(a) optimal, (b) suitable, (c) marginal, and (d) uninhabited-potential
habitats. Land ownership and land use of the habitat must be
determined.
Task 2. Preserve and/or manage habitat
The ultimate objective is to maintain through habitat protection
(agreements, easements, acquisition, etc.) at least 16,000 ha of
habitat (categories a,b,and c above) with about half (8,000 ha) in
optimal or suitable habitat. To maintain habitat, compatible land
practices (e.g. compatible timber harvesting methods) need to be
determined and utilized for the various habitats.
Task 3. Population assessment and study
Only one population of salamanders has been studied in detail.
The applicability of these known biological parameters needs to be
determined for the entire species. Additional population structure
and dynamics information is needed.
Task 4. Educate landowners
Landowners need to be educated as to the value, range and habitat
of the species, as well as the beneficial or compatible management
actions necessary to sustain the species.
Task 5. Monitor habitat and populations
Maps, habitat condition and categories, and population status
need to be reassessed and evaluated for corrective actions at 3 year
intervals.
Current ongoing recovery activities are limited to protection
provided under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act of 1973.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Behler, J. L. and F. W. King. 1979. The Audubon Society Field
Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf,
New York. 719 pp.
02 Brandon, R. A. 1965. Morphological variation and ecology of the
salamander Phaeognathus hubrichti. Copeia 1965:67-71.
03 Brandon, R. A. and E. J. Maruska. Phaeognathus hubrichti (Red
Hills salamander). Reprod. Herp. Rev. 13:46.
04 French, T. W. 1976. Report on the status and future of the Red
Hills salamander. Unpubl. Rept. to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
9 pp.
05 French, T. W. and R. H. Mount. 1978. Current status of the Red
Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton, and factors
affecting its distribution. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 49:172-179.
06 Highton, R. 1961. A new genus of lungless salamander from the
Coastal Plain of Alabama. Copeia 1961:65-68.
07 Jordan, J. R., Jr. 1975. Observations on the natural history and
ecology of the Red Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton
(Caudata:Plethodontidae). M.S. Thesis. Auburn Univ., AL. 59 pp.
08 Jordan, J. R. and R. H. Mount. 1975. The status of the Red Hills
salamander. J. Herpetol. 9:211-215.
09 Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Ala.
Agr. Expt. Sta. vii + 347 pp.
10 National fish and Wildlife Laboratory. 1980. Selected vertebrate
endangered species of the seacoast of the United States: Red Hills
salamander. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biol. Serv. Prog.
FWS/OBS-80/01.50. 4 pp.
11 Schwaner, T. D. and R. H. Mount. 1970. Notes on the distribution
and ecology of the salamander Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton.
Copeia 1970:571-573.
12 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Red Hills salamander
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 23pp.
13 Valentine, B. D. 1963a. The plathodontid salamander Phaeognathus:
external morphology and zoogeography. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
76:153-158.
14 Valentine, B. D. 1963b. The plethodontid salamander Phaeognathus:
collecting techniques and habits. J. Ohio Herp. Soc. 4:49-54.
15 Wake, D. B. 1966. Comparative osteology and evolution of the
lungless salamanders, family Plethodontidae. Mem. S. Calif. Acad.
Sci. 4:1-111.
16 Mount, R. H. 1985. Personal observations. Dept. Zool.-Ent.,
Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849-4201.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Brandon, R. A. 1965. Morphological variation and ecology of the
salamander Phaeohnathus hubrichti. Copeia 1965:67-71.
02 French, T. W. 1976. Report on the status and future of the Red
Hills salamander. Unpubl. Rept. to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species SALAMANDER, RED HILLS
Species Id ESIS204002
Date 14 MAR 96
9 pp.
03 French, T. W. and R. H. Mount. 1978. Current status of the Red
Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton, and factors
affecting its distribution. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 49:172-179.
04 Highton, R. 1961. A new genus of lungless salamander from the
Coastal Plain of Alabama. Copeia 1961:65-68.
05 Jordan, J. R., Jr. 1975. Observations on the natural history and
ecology of the Red Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton
(Caudata:Plethodontidae). M.S. Thesis. Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL
59pp.
06 Jordan, J. R., Jr. and R. H. Mount. 1975. The status of the Red
Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti. J. Herpetol. 9:211-215.
07 Schwaner, T. D. and R. H. Mount. 1970. Notes on the distribution
and ecology of the salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton.
Copeia 1970:571-573.
08 Valentine, B. D. 1963. The plethodontid salamander Phaeognathus:
external morphology and zoogeography. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
76:153-158.
References - 2