(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - TROUT, APACHE
OTHER COMMON NAMES - TROUT, APACHE; TROUT, ARIZONA; TROUT, NATIVE and ARIZONA
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - OSTEICHTHYES,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - SALMONIFORMES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - SALMONIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - SALMO,
SPECIES AND SSP - APACHE,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - SALMO APACHE
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Apache Trout
Salmo apache Miller, 1972
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Fish
PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Osteichthyes
ORDER: Salmoniformes FAMILY: Salmonidae
Distinguishing charatcteristics: Body deep and compressed; dorsal
fin large; spots on body pronounced and often uniformaly spaced,
roundish in outline, medium-sized; spots slightly smaller than in most
interior subspecies of cutthroat, Salmo clarki, but more like typical
cutthroat trout than Gila trout, Salmo gilae. Yellowish or
yellow-olive ground colors predominate, with tints of pink observable
on fresh specimens, but no red or pink lateral band present. Dorsal,
pelvic and anal fins with conspicuous cream or yellowish tip. Yellow
cutthroat mark present. Vertebrae 58-61; pyloric caeca 21-41: scales
133-172 (range of mean 146-158) in lateral series and 32-40 (range
of means 34-36) above lateral line. Diploid chromosomes number 56
with 106 arms. Effects of hybridization with rainbow trout, Salmo
gairdneri can be detected (or suspected) on the basis of the following
characteristics: mean value of vertebrae counts more then 60, mean
scale counts less than 150 in lateral series and less than 34 above
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
lateral line. Mean pyloric caecal values of more than 32, and erratic
spotting or coloration (06).
Validity: Although native trout were known from the White Mountains,
Arizona, since 1873, they were not described as a distinct species
until 1972 (13). Cope and Yarrow (09) described their specimens
collected from the White River as a variety of Salmo pleuriticus, the
Colorado River cutthroat trout. Jordon and Evermann (11) referred
to specimens from the headwaters of the Little Colorado River as Salmo
mykiss pleuriticus. Miller (12) and most subsequent authors (09,08,
14) tentatively referred to the native trout of the White Mountains
as Salmo gilae. Miller (13) described Salmo apache, with an originial
distribution in the upper Salt River (Black and White Rivers), San
Francisco River (Blue River), and the headwaters of the Little
Colorado River, Arizona. Trout native to Oak Creek of the Verde River
drainage had the general appearance and spotting pattern typical of
Gila trout, and Miller (13) identified them as Salmo gilae.
Additional samples of trout from Sycamore Creek (Agua Fria drainage)
were tentatively identified as hybrids by Behnke, Minckley, and
Miller, supporting Miller's conclusion (06). Prior to Millers
original description he referred to the species as Salmo sp. (18).
Other common names used to describe this species are, the Arizona
trout and the Arizona native trout.
Type specimens are housed at the University of Michigan Museum of
Zoology (UMMZ 162769, 162770, 121654, 157653, 189634, 189638, 190814),
Arizona State University (ASU 5557) the U.S National Museum
(USNM 15999), and California Academy of Sciences (CAS 27147) (13).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
T: Federal Threatened
Commercial/consumption
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Apache trout (Salmo apache) has been designated
Threatened species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as
amended. The species has this status wherever found including the
State of Arizona.
Special rules concerning "Take" for this species can be found
in 50 CFR 17.44(a).
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
BIA -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Bureau of Indian Affairs
lands.
USFS -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public lands under their control. Also responsible
for management/recovery on Forest Service lands. The
Forest Service is responsible for integrating
management, protection, and conservation of Federally
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
listed species into the Forest Planning process
(36 CFR 219.19 and 219.20). Management practices
that would cause detrimental changes in water
temperature or composition, water course blockage, or
sediment deposits within 100 feet of the edges of
perennial streams, lakes or other bodies of water are
prohibited (36 CFR 219.27(e)).
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Arizona
DESIGNATED STATUS: Group 3.
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Arizona Game and Fish Department
STATE STATUTE: Arizona Revised Status 17, Arizona Game and Fish
Commission. 1982. Threatened Native Wildlife in
Arizona.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
Listed in the IUCN Red Data Book as "Vulnerable", (in the 1977
edition). The Arizona (Apache) trout was listed by the U.S. in the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere Annex (1970).
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Apache trout have been legal game fish on Forest Service lands
since downlisting in 1975. This species has value as a component of
Arizona's natural heritage of biotic diversity.
67/03/11:32 FR 04001 - Listed as Endangered.
75/07/16:40 FR 29863/29864 - Downlisted to Threatened.
85/07/22:50 FR 29901/29909 - Five Year Review.
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC
SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTRY TYPES
SAF TYPE STAGE CLOSURE
Interior Ponderosa Pine mature tree
Interior Ponderosa Pine Old Growth
mature tree
Old Growth
LAND USE -
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
Streams and Canals
Reservoirs
Nonforested Wetland
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, intermittent SB1
Riverine, upper perennial FL5
Riverine, upper perennial FL1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Historically Salmo apache occupied the headwaters of the
Little Colorado, Salt and San Francisco Rivers in east-central
Arizona. All suitable perennial streams draining the White Mountains
above 1800 meters were probably occupied. Introduction of exotic
salmonids has reduced natural Apache trout populations to those
existing mainly in headwater areas upstream from natural barriers at
elevations above 2500 meters. These are small, cold, high-gradient
streams. Substrates consist mainly of boulders, rocks and gravel
with some sand and silt. The streams flow through a mixed
coniferious forest with spruce, fir and aspen dominating higher
elevations grading to Ponderosa pine forest at lower altitudes and
areas of shrub/brush rangeland. Arizona alder (Alnus oblongifolia)
frequently canopies the streams. The Apache trout also occurs in
two lakes on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation, Hurricane Lake and
Christmas Tree Lake. However, it apparently does not reproduce in
these lakes.
Harper (10) found that apache trout streams he studied were
subject to extremes of flow and diurnal temperatures. The streams he
examined had low pool-riffle ratios, widths greatly exceeding depths,
with the majority of reaches consisting of riffles and runs.
Environments downstream from headwater springs were often harsh during
winter, with formation of anchor ice and ice bridges.
Alcorn (01) determined an upper lethal temperature limit for
Salmo apache of 23 deg. Celsius. Most fish refuse to feed in
temperatures above 20 deg. Celsius.
Specific environmental parameters required by the species have
not been determined but are assumed to be similar to those of other
salmonids. Water quality in the streams occupied by Salmo apache is
high. Water temperatures range from 0-22 deg. Celsius seasonally,
oxygen concentrations are typically at saturation, pH's near neutral,
Habitat Associations - 1 with low levels of alkalinity, dissolved solids, suspended solids and
turbidity (05).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Crustaceans
General Molluscs
General Fish
General Arthropods
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Aquatic Features: Springs [flowing]
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Harper (10) found that feeding habits of S. apache in Big Bonita
Creek on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation depended upon fish size.
Fish 6-9 centimeters (cm) long primarily fed on Ephemeroptera,
whereas fish 15 cm and larger utilized more Trichoptera. Terrestrial
insects were eaten by all size classes. Utilization of Diptera,
Trichoptera, and terrestrial insects changed with the seasons. Fish
12.4-20.6 cm long captured from Mamie Creek on the Apache-Sitgreaves
National Forest exhibited similar feeding tendencies; however,
ephemeropterans were more prevalent in the diet of larger specimens
than those examined by Harper (05). These studies indicate that this
trout is generally an opportunistic feeder. Seasonal changes in
utilization of taxa closely followed the availablity of food items.
Included in their possible diet must be included other typical
foods of Salmonidaes, such as: other fish, crustaceans, molluscs,
and snails. Until indepth research on Salmo apache's feeding behavior
is underatken, these items can only be inferred from other closely
related species (17).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Harper (10) found territorial behavior exhibited by Salmo apache.
Tagged fish exhibited very little movement in Big Bonita Creek. Adult
salmo apache displayed the type of sedentary life commonly found in
other species of trout. Harper (10) postulated that the high
population densities of Salmo apache in Big Bonita Creek may have been
the result of lower aggression tendencies than found in other
salmonids.
PERIODICITY:
Harper (10) found nocturnal migration of newly emerged fry.
Feeding studies showed Apache trout to feed principally during
daylight hours (15).
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Harper (10) found the species to be non migratory.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
Specific cover/shelter requirements have not been determined for
this species but are probably similar to other salmonids.
Harper (10) found that apache trout streams he studied were
subject to extremes of flow and diurnal temperatures. The streams he
examined had low pool-riffle ratios, widths greatly exceeding depths,
with the majority of reaches consisting of riffles and runs.
Environments downstream from headwater springs were often harsh during
winter, with formation of anchor ice and ice bridges.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Few studies have been conducted on Apache trout reproduction.
Spawning is known to occur from March through mid-June and varies with
stream elevation. Harper (10) found redd construction commenced as
water temperatures reached 8 deg. Celsius. Due to the abundance of
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
hybrid populations, it has been theorized that spawning period of
Apache trout is essentially identical to that of rainbow trout,
S. gairdneri. However, Miller (13) and Anderson (02) suggested that
hybridization may occur primarily during marginal overlapping of the
spawning periods.
In Bonita Creek redds were constructed primarily at the
downstream end of pools in a wide variety of substrates, water
velocities, and water depths (10). Comparisons of the composition
between redds, pools and riffles, indicate redds contained a greater
proportion of gravel sizes less than 16 millimeter (mm) and greater
than 0.85 mm. Depths of redds ranged from 2-9 cm. All redds lengths
ranged from 20-30 centimeters (cm) and widths ranged from 15-27 cm.
All redds examined in Bonita Creek were located in areas of day-long
illumination (10).
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Harper (10) recorded fecundity in fish 13.1-19.1 centimeters (cm)
long from Big Bonita Creek ranging from 72-238 eggs. Roselund (16)
found that egg numbers varied from 646-1083 from Christmas Tree Lake
specimens 29.84-34.92 cm in length. Fish collected from Ord Creek in
1962 and held by the Arizona Game and Fish Department, yielded an
average of 72 eggs per female in 1964. During 1969 the same brood
stock produced an average of 4215 eggs per female. In examining
Bonita Creek specimens, Harper (10) found the smallest mature female
to be 13.0 cm long, while the smallest mature male was 14.5 cm long.
These sizes corresponded to a spawning age of 3 years. Two redds
examined by Harper during his study contained 43 and 67 eggs. Since
the fecundity of all fish checked was greater than this, he suggested
that each Salmo apache may deposit eggs in several redds during a
single spawning season. The period from egg deposition to emergence
of fry in Big Bonita Creek was 60 days, thereby limiting growth prior
to winter.
PARENTAL CARE:
No parental care occurs.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Apache trout were recognized as a unique species many years
before they were officially described in 1972. Their distribution is
centered in the White Mountains of east Central Arizona, on lands
administered by the White Mountain Apache Tribe and adjacent
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest. The principle reason for decline
of this native trout is loss of habitat and genetic swamping by
introduced rainbow trout (03).
Recovery efforts center around: 1) developing methods of
identifying pure populations of Apache trout, 2) protecting those
populations and their habitats, 3) reintroducing Apache trout into
historic waters after the non-native species have been eliminated, and
4) developing and implementing land management plans for the
protection of Apache trout habitats (03).
The ultimate objective of the Apache Trout Recovery Team is
restoration of Salmo apache to a non threatened staus. The recovery
team set a goal of 30 discrete selfsustaining populations to
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
completely delist it. Recovery efforts are on-going. Surveys to
define present distribution have been completed. A number of
artificial stream barriers have been built, streams chemically
renovated to remove exotic trout and restocked with Salmo apache.
There are now 23 populations of Apache trout within historic range of
this species. Five additional streams have barriers in place and/or
awaiting chemical renovation and restocking (04).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Historically, the Apache trout, Salmo apache was the only
salmonid resident in the Black, White and Little Colorado River
drainages. Introduction of other trout species has reduced pure
populations to those existing in isolated headwater areas of the
drainages described above. To a lesser extent, brown and brook trout
limit S. apache through competitive interaction. Rainbow trout is
the major factor limiting the presistence of S. apache. Hybridization
between these two species readily occurs, thereby contaminating pure
Salmo apache populations (03).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Size: The severity of the environment presently occupied by Salmo
apache precludes individuals from obtaining large average size.
Individual trout seldom exceed 25 centimeters (cm) total length in
present stream populations (05). During Harper's (10) survey of the
East Fork of the White River above 2700 meters elevation and Big
Bonita Creek above 2500 meters elevation, he found fish larger than
17.0 cm total length, and 21.0 cm total length, comprised
approximately 21% and 5% respectively of each population. The present
world angling record for this species is 56 cm total length and
weighed 1.64 kg.. This record was taken from Bear Canyon Lake
in 1973.
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Suppressing wildfire
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Reforestation
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Domestic Animals
Adverse Hybridization
Existing Hybridization
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Historically, the Apache trout (Salmo apache) was the only
salmonid resident in the Black, White and Little Colorado drainages.
Introduction of other trout species has reduced pure populations to
those existing in isolated headwater areas of those drainages.
Rainbow trout is the major factor limiting the persistence of Salmo
apache. Hybridization between these two species readily occurs,
thereby contaminating pure Salmo apache populations. To a lesser
extent brown and brook trout limit Salmo apache through competitive
interaction. Habitat degradation brought about by livestock
grazing and logging may contribute to the displacement process.
Stocking programs undertaken between 1920 and 1950 by the Arizona Game
and Fish Department and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were the
major factor contributing to the trout's present status. Fingerling
brook, brown, and rainbow trout were stocked into numerous remote
locations on the Apache National Forest and Fort Apache Indian
Reservation. Present stocking programs pose no threat to the
species. Current threats to Salmo apache are livestock grazing and
logging which can seriously impact watersheds through increased
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
erosion and siltation (03).
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1979. Arizona Trout Recovery Plan.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, NM. 39 pp.
The prime objective of the recovery plan is to improve the
status of the Apache trout to the point that survival is secured and
the species can be delisted. To reach this goal the plan proposes to
establish and/or maintain 30 self-sustaining discrete populations of
pure Apache trout throughout its historic range. Maintenance and
enhancement of existing Apache trout populations and their habitats
should include:
(1) periodic monitoring of Apache trout populations (numbers,
condition, and age structure of fish),
(2) banning the introduction of non-native fishes,
(3) stopping immigration of non-native fishes by maintaining barriers
into Apache trout habitat, and
(4) improve feeding, spawing and cover areas in streams and encourage
sound land management within each watershed. Land management
practices should be established to control any detrimental effects to
Apache trout habitat or populations resulting from:
a) grazing and watering of cattle along these fragile areas,
b) logging and silvacultural practices (i.e., damage by heavy
equipment, erosion, poor road construction and clearing),
c) chemical use (i.e., pesticides, herbicides, etc.),
d) fire management (intensive wildfires that consume
extensive areas of vegetation could result in loss of
Apache trout habitat), and
e) road construction activities (i.e. construction of both
temporary logging roads and permanent forest roads.
Also land management practices to rehabilitate disturbed areas and to
maintain instream flows should be implemented within Apache trout
habitat.
(5) develop and apply recreation standards to lessen impact on trout
habitat and populations,
(6) provide adequate enforcement of all Federal, State and tribal
laws and regulations to insure protection of Apache trout (i.e. laws
concerning harvest (lawful and unlawful), pollution and protection)
and,
(7) collect specimens, when population size warrants, so that
competent taxonomist may determine the purity of populations.
Efforts should be made to reestablish Apache trout within
portions of its former range. Such reintroductions should follow this
order: (1) conduct an intensive fishery survey, (2) determine
existance of natural barriers and/or sites for artificial barriers
and their effectiveness, (3) determine suitability of candidate
stream, (4) prepare canidate stream (construct barriers, remove
non-native salmonids, etc.), and (5) introduce pure stocks of Apache
trout. The Plan calls for maintanance of a hatchery brood stock of
Apache trout by development of 1) criteria for selection and
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
acquisition of new brood fish, 2) guidelines for maintenance of brood
stock, and 3) guidelines for disposal of hatchery reared fish.
Information on the ecology of Apache trout is needed, including:
(1) a literaturte review for the species; (2) life history
information, including (a) habitat requirements, (b) competition and
its effects on population size, (c) taxonomy of isolated populations,
and (d) other typical life history information (i.e., reproduction,
growth, etc.); (3) methods for identifying pure Apache trout in the
field or by personnel with only limited taxonomic background; and
(4) on the stability of Apache trout to support fishery pressure.
Finally, public awareness of the uniqueness of the Apache trout
should be increased through preparation of information pamplets,
interpretive programs, and use of the broadcast and print media.
Ongoing recovery efforts: Nine naturally occuring pure
populations of Apache trout are judged to currently exist. In the
60's and 70's introductions were made into 12 streams (8 historic); 3
historic and 1 new range streams continue to sustain pure populations.
Five successsful transplants within historic range were established in
the early 80's. Five candidate streams are scheduled for renovation
in 1986-87. Problems that have beset efforts to culture Apache trout
are being solved at Williams Creek National Fish Hatchery. The effort
of reestablishing populations will continue until recovery is
attained.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Alcorn, S.R. 1976. Temperature tolerances and upper lethal limits
of Salmo apache. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 105(2):294-295.
02 Anderson, J.K. 1965. Special Report; fishery management Fort
Apache Indian Reservation, Arizona. Spec. Rept., U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Pinetop, Ariz. 8 pp.
03 Apache Trout Recovery Team. 1983. Arizona (Apache) Trout
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, New Mexico.
04 Apache Trout Recovery Team. 1985. Unpubl. Apache Trout
Populations and and candidate Waters, 1985.
05 Arizona Game and Fish Department. Unpubl. data. Pinetop, Arizona.
06 Behnke, R.J. and M. Zarn. 1976. Biology and management of
threatened western trouts. USDA For. Serv. Tech. Rept. RM-28,
45 pp.
07 Bruce, J.R. 1960. Studies of the abundance, distribution and
ecology of the Arizona native trout, Salmo gila, Miller, in the
White River Drainage. Comp. Rept., F-7-R-3, WPL, AZ. Game and Fish
Dept. Phoenix, AZ. 2 pp.
08 Bruce, J.R. 1961. Studies of the abundance, distribution and
ecology of the Arizona native trout, Salmo gila, Miller, in the
White River Drainage. Comp. Rept., F-7-R-4, WPL, AZ. Game and Fish
Dept. Phoenix, AZ., 2 pp.
09 Cope, E.D. and H.C. Yarrow. 1875. Report upon the collection of
fishes made in portions of NV., UT., CA., CO., NM., and AZ., during
the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. Rept. Georgr. Geol. Expl.
Surv. W. 100th Meridian (Wheeler Survey), 5:635-703.
10 Harper, K.C. 1976. On the biology of Salmo apache and its
management implications. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson,
AZ. 44 pp.
11 Jordan, D.S. and B.S. Evermann. 1896. The fishes of North and
Middle America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., Part 1, 47:i-ix-1-1240.
12 Miller, R.R. 1950. Notes on the cutthroat and rainbow trouts,
with the description of a new species from the Gila River,
New Mexico. Occ. Pap. Muc. Zool., Univ. Mich., 529:1-42.
13 Miller, R.R. 1972. Classification of the native trouts of Arizona
with the description of a new species, Salmo apache. Copeia, 1972:
401-422.
14 Miller, R.R. and C.H. Lowe. 1964. Part 2. An annotated
check-list of the fishes of Arizona. In: The vertebrates of
Arizona. Univ. of AZ., Press, Tucson, AZ. Pp. 133-151.
15 Robinson, R.W. and J.C. Tash. 1979. Feeding by Arizona trout
(Salmo apache) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) at different light
intensities. Env. Biol. Fish. Vol. 4 (4). Pp. 363-368.
16 Rosenlund, Bruce D. 1974. Apache trout disease check.
Memorandum, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Pinetop, AZ., 2 pp.
17 Novy, James. 1987. Pers. comm. AZ. Game and Fish Dept., Pinetop,
AZ.
18 Miller, R.R. 1972. Threatened freshwater fishes of the United
States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 101:239-252.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species TROUT, APACHE
Species Id ESIS252011
Date 14 MAR 96
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 Apache Trout Recovery Team. 1983. Arizona (Apache) Trout
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
02 Apache Trout Recovery Team. 1985. Unpubl. Apache Trout
Populations and and candidate Waters, 1985.
03 Rhinne, J.N. 1985. Variation in Apache Trout Populations in the
White Mountains, Arizona. N. Am. J. of Fish. Mgmt. 5:146-158.
References - 2