(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW

OTHER COMMON NAMES - SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW; GLASSMINNOW, WACCAMAW; MINNOW, GLASS+, WACCAMAW; MINNOW and GLASS; SKIPJACK

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Fish

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - CHORDATA,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - OSTEICHTHYES,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - ATHERINIFORMES,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ATHERINIDAE,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - MENIDIA,

SPECIES AND SSP - EXTENSA,

SCIENTIFIC NAME - MENIDIA EXTENSA

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES -

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Waccamaw Silverside

Menidia extensa Hubbs & Raney, 1946

KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Fish

PHYLUM: Chordata CLASS: Osteichthyes
ORDER: Atheriniformes FAMILY: Atherinidae

Menidia extensa (Hubbs and Raney 1946), a freshwater derivative
of M. beryllina stock (09,08), is a long (adults 2.5 inches), slender,
almost transparent fish with a silvery stripe along each side. There
is no sexual dimorphism. The eyes are large, and the jaw is angled
sharply upward (08). The first dorsal fin is inserted barely in
advance of the origin of the anal fin; scales are degenerate and
essentially oval in shape. The number of anal soft rays is usually 19
to 20; vertebrae are 42 to 45; scales from gill opening to C. base are
44 to 50; predorsal scales are 19 to 25; scales above anal origin are
9 to 11; scales around caudal peduncle are 14 to 17; first dorsal
spines are 3 to 6; and second dorsal soft rays are 7 to 11 (08).
The holotype was collected from Lake Waccamaw on March 30, 1941,
and is located at the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (No.
135846), at Cornell University (No. 9289), and at the U.S. National
Museum. An excellent line drawing is on page 559 of Lee et al. (1980)
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

(09) and in Davis and Louder (1969) (05).
In addition to the common name Waccamaw silverside, Menidia
extensa is known as the Waccamaw glassminnow, skipjack (08,11), or
glass minnow (18).

Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

STATUS

Coded Status

North Carolina; State Recognized
North Carolina; Unofficially Listed

T: Federal Threatened

Game (Consumptive Recreational)

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Waccamaw silverside (Menidia extensa) has been designated as
Threatened pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR
17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended.
The species has this status wherever found including the State of
North Carolina. Critical Habitat has been designated in Columbus
County, NC, specifically, Lake Waccamaw in its entirety to mean high
water level, and Big Creek from its mouth at Lake Waccamaw upstream
approximately 0.6 km (0.4 mi) to where the Creek is crossed by County
Road 1947 (50 CFR 17.95(e)).
Special rules concerning take of this species in accordance with
applicable State laws can be found in 50 CFR 17.44(s).
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild animal
(alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation, or foreign law; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.

RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:

USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.

All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.

Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:

STATE: North Carolina
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Wildlife Resources Commission
STATE STATUTE: 15 NC Admin. Code, 10I.0003, Eff. July 28, 1979;
NC Gen Stat. Ch. 113, Sec. 272.4 and 292
(take) nongame fish.
UNOFFICIAL LIST: Endangered, IN: Endangered and threatened
plants and animals of North Carolina. 1977.
J.E. Cooper, ed. Proc. Symp. on Endang. &
Threat. Biota of N.C. NC Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Raleigh. 444 pp.

INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
The Waccamaw silverside is listed as Vulnerable in the 1986 IUCN
Red List of threatened Animals.

ECONOMIC STATUSES:
Occasionally the Waccamaw silverside is used by local residents
as bait for fishing.

75/03/18:40 FR 12297/ - Notice of review
77/12/30:42 FR 65209/65212 - Proposed, Endangered w/ Critical Habitat
80/01/24:45 FR 05782/ - Proposal withdrawn
82/12/30:47 FR 58454/58460 - Proposed, Threatened w/ Critical Habitat
86/01/16:51 FR 02409/02410 - Announc. publ. hear. & ext. comment per.
87/04/08:52 FR 11277/11286 - Final rule, Threatened w/ Crit. Habitat

Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC

LAND USE -
Cropland and Pasture
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Forested Wetland

NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES

NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC

Riverine, upper perennial
Lacustrine, littoral UB2
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic UB2
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The Waccamaw silverside (Menidia extensa) is a lacustrine species
restricted to Lake Waccamaw, where it occupies open water (not
associated with aquatic vegetation) over a dark sand bottom. The pH
of the lake is almost neutral (6.6 to 6.8); water temperatures vary
less than 2 degrees from surface to bottom throughout the year;
dissolved oxygen ranges from 7.9 to 8.5 ppm during the critical time
from June through August; free carbon dioxide ranges from 4.5 to
11.0 ppm and total alkalinity ranges from 16.0 to 24.0 ppm during the
same critical period; Secchi disc readings average 50 inches, ranging
from 31 to 55 throughout the year (05,11). Large areas of the lake
are less than 2 m in depth (17). Critical Habitat designation
includes a small portion of Big Creek (riverine area) because of the
potential impacts on the lake habitat by activities in this area (17).
The watershed is managed primarily for agriculture (row crops and
pasture) and commercial lumber production. Much of the forested
portions of the watershed is swamp of cypress, tupelo, and red maple
of various age classes. Activities or disturbances contributing to
siltation or pesticide application in these areas could adversely
impact the species.

Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Arthropods
General Zooplankton
General Crustaceans

Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

LIFE HISTORY

FOOD HABITS:
The Waccamaw silverside (Menidia extensa) feeds on whatever
zooplankton are most available at any given time. Stomach content
analyses showed a preponderance of crustaceans, primarily Cladocera
and Ostracoda. Aquatic insects form a minor percentage of the prey
consumed. The silverside feeds at the surface, in open water (05).

HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
No territoriality is known, nor is any information available on
home range. The species is gregarious, being found usually in schools
(05).

PERIODICITY:
Waccamaw silversides appear to be active around the clock, since
feeding occurs both during the day and at night; no seasonal
behavioral differences have been noted. During periods of increased
wave action and turbidity, the species is more often found near the
shoreline. On calm days, they are usually found 100 to 200 feet from
shore (05,11).

MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Non-migratory (05,11).

COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The species requires open water, without aquatic vegetation, over
dark sand bottoms (05,11).
The pH of Lake Waccamaw is almost neutral (6.6 to 6.8); water
temperatures vary less than 2 degrees from surface to bottom
throughout the year; dissolved oxygen ranges from 7.9 to 8.5 ppm
during the critical time from June through August; free carbon dioxide
ranges from 4.5 to 11.0 ppm and total alkalinity ranges from 16.0 to
24.0 ppm during the same critical period; Secchi disc readings average
50 inches, ranging from 31 to 55 throughout the year (05,11).

REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Spawning has not been directly observed, but the species is
believed to use open water, away from aquatic vegetation, over dark
sand bottoms near the shoreline (05).

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
Although actual spawning has not been observed, M. extensa
reaches sexual maturity at 1 year of age. No external characteristics
indicate spawning condition, other than the more robust form of the
ripe female. Developing eggs have been found in females as early as
November. The number of eggs in ripe ovaries averages approximately
150; diameter of mature eggs is 0.6 mm. The spawning peak occurs when
water temperatures are between 68 degrees and 72 degrees F (March and
April). Spawning appears to occur over an extended period with some
fish still containing ripe eggs as late as July. Apparently, almost
all adults die soon after spawning. The earliest hatching occurs
around the end of April or the first of May (05,11).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

PARENTAL CARE:
There is no parental care.

POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Sex ratio of females to males is 1:1.59. Virtually the entire
population turns over each year, since spawning occurs after the first
winter, and most adults die shortly thereafter. The species is a
major prey item for the larger fish of Lake Waccamaw and has adapted
to a life of heavy predation. Water quality appears to be the chief
limiting factor at present (05,11).

SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
This species is a major prey item for larger carnivorous fish in
Lake Waccamaw, such as white perch (Morone americana), largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides), yellow perch (Perca flavescens), and warmouth
(Lepomis gulosus), and is adapted to heavy predation (05).

OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
Nothing known.

Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Controlling water levels
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Nonnative Vegetation
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Existing Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Recent studies indicate that the habitat of the Waccamaw
silverside, (i.e., Lake Waccamaw) is experiencing dangerous increases
in nutrient loading; eutrophication of this extremely shallow lake is
thus a distinct possibility (11,02,04). The Waccamaw silverside has a
very short lifespan (rarely exceeding 1 year) (05). Eutrophication
(involving the reduction of dissolved oxygen), even on a temporary
basis (e.g., during critical periods for spawning and/or development
of eggs and young) could result in the extirpation of the species.
Dissolved oxygen in the lake ranges from 7.9 to 8.5 ppm during the
critical time from June through August; free carbon dioxide ranges
from 4.5 to 11.0 ppm and total alkalinity ranges from 16.0 to 24.0 ppm
during the same critical period. Lake Waccamaw's neutral pH is
extremely unusual among North Carolina bay lakes (most of which are
acidic) and is believed to result from the buffering effects of the
Waccamaw Limestone formation which underlies the lake and is exposed
on the north shore (06). Any overall change in the pH of the water
could have dramatic effects on the lake's endemic fauna, including the
silverside. Siltation has also been identified as affecting Lake
Waccamaw. However, the source of the siltation is unclear and the
effects of siltation have not yet become a serious threat to the
silverside.
Although the State of North Carolina has regulations to govern
the take of the Waccamaw silverside, no protection is afforded to the
habitat upon which the silverside depends. As described above,
habitat degradation is the primary cause for this species threatened
status.
The shore of Lake Waccamaw is partially developed as a
residential area. The watershed is managed primarily for agriculture
and commercial lumber production. Highway construction across the
watershed is also currently underway. If any of these contribute
significantly to the lake's nutrient load, eutrophication and
extirpation of the fish could result (02,04,13).

UNAPPROVED PLAN:
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

A recovery plan for the Waccamaw silverside has not been
initiated; no target date has been set.

Maintenance of water quality is the key to this species'
recovery. The silverside, having a 1-year life cycle, depends upon
successful reproduction each year for survival. Eutrophication and
anoxia in the shallow lake inhabited by the species, even for brief
periods during a given year, could result in the demise of this fish.
Present and potential sources of pollution and nutrient input must be
identified and controlled. Although presently not an imminent threat,
actions altering the water table to an extremely low level would most
likely result in the extinction of the species and, therefore, should
be prevented. If threatening non-native aquatic weeds (such as
Hydrilla) appear in the lake, control measures may be necessary. Use
of pesticides which are toxic to fish must be controlled in the
watershed. Land acquisition may be recommended as a means of
protecting undeveloped sections of the lake's shoreline.
Ongoing recovery activities consist of land acquisition by the
Nature Conservancy and the North Carolina Department of Natural
Resources and Community Development, Division of Parks and Recreation.

Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

References

***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****

01 Bailey, J.R. 1977. Watersheds and critical areas. Pages 268-277.
IN: Endangered and threatened biota of North Carolina. J.E.
Cooper et al., eds. NC Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh.
02 Casterlin, M.E., W. Reynolds, D.G. Lindquist, and C.G. Yarbrough.
1986. Algal and physicochemical indicators of eutrophication in
a lake harboring endemic species: Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina.
J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 100(3):83-103.
03 Cooper, J.E., ed. 1977. Endangered and threatened plants and
animals of North Carolina; Proceedings of the symposium on
endangered and threatened biota of North Carolina. NC Mus. Nat.
Hist., Raleigh. 444 pp.
04 Creager, C.S., N.K. Browne, and R.E. Shaw. 1984. Modeling of
phosphorus concentrations in Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina, with an
analysis of economic alternatives and policy options to preserve
water quality. M.S. Project, Duke Univ., School of For. and
Environ. Stud., Durham, NC. 125 pp.
05 Davis, J.R. and D.E. Louder. 1969. Life history of Menidia
extensa. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 98(3):466-472
06 Frey, D.G. 1951. The fishes of North Carolina's Bay Lakes and
their intraspecific variation. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc.
67(1):1-44.
07 Hubbs, C.L. and E.C. Raney. 1946. Endemic fish fauna of Lake
Waccamaw, North Carolina. Misc. Publ., Univ. of Mich. Mus. Zool.
65:1-30.
08 Lee, D.S., C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutts, R.E. Jenkins, E.E.
MacAllister, and J.R. Staufer, Jr. 1980. Atlas of North American
freshwater fishes. NC State Mus. of Nat. Hist., Raleigh.
i-x + 867 pp.
09 Lindqist, D.G. 1981. Endemic fishes of Lake Waccamaw. Kin'Lin'
2(5):38-41.
10 Lindquist, D.G. and C.G. Yarbrough. 1982. Status of the endemic
ichthyofauna of Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina. NC Endangered
Species Restor. Tech. Rept. E-1-VI-1-61. 108 pp.
11 National Technical Information Service. 1973. Compendium of
National Eutrophication Survey lakes in North Carolina--Lake
Waccamaw. Working Pap. No. 391. NTIS Accession No. PB-252 047/AB.
Springfield, VA.
12 North Carolina Dept. of Natural Resources & Community Development.
Nov. 26, 1984. Lake Waccamaw Water Qual. Comm. Rept., Raleigh, NC.
16 pp.
13 Palmer, C.M. 1969. A composite rating of algae tolerating organic
pollution. J. Phycology 5:78-82.
14 Reynolds, W.W. and M.E. Casterlin. 1981. Thermal preferenda and
diel activity patterns of fishes from Lake Waccamaw. Brimleyana
7:55-60.
15 Shute, J.R., P.W. Shute, and D.G. Lindquist. 1981. Fishes of the
Waccamaw River Drainage. Brimleyana 6:1-24.
16 Vollenweider, R.A. 1968. Scientific fundamentals of the
eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with particular
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

reference to phosphorus and nitrogen as factors in eutrophication.
OECD Tech. Rept. DAS/CSI/68.27 (revised 1971). 159 pp.
17 Murdock, Nora. 1987. Pers. comm. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Asheville, NC.
18 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Endangered and threatened
wildlife and plants; Determination of threatened status and
Critical Habitat for the Waccamaw silverside. April 18, 1987.
Fed. Reg. 52(67):11277-11286.

***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****

01 Bailey, J.R. 1977. Watersheds and critical areas. Pages 268-277.
IN: Endangered and threatened biota of North Carolina. J.E.
Cooper et al., eds. NC Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh.
02 Casterlin, M.E., W. Reynolds, D.G. Lindquist, and C.G. Yarbrough.
1986. Algal and physicochemical indicators of eutrophication in
a lake harboring endemic species: Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina.
J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 100(3):83-103.
03 Cooper, J.E., ed. 1977. Endangered and threatened plants and
animals of North Carolina; Proceedings of the symposium on
endangered and threatened biota of North Carolina. NC Mus. Nat.
Hist., Raleigh. 444 pp.
04 Creager, C.S., N.K. Browne, and R.E. Shaw. 1984. Modeling of
phosphorus concentrations in Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina, with an
analysis of economic alternatives and policy options to preserve
water quality. M.S. Project, Duke Univ., School of For. and
Environ. Stud., Durham, NC. 125 pp.
05 Davis, J.R. and D.E. Louder. 1969. Life history of Menidia
extensa. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 98(3):466-472
06 Frey, D.G. 1951. The fishes of North Carolina's Bay Lakes and
their intraspecific variation. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc.
67(1):1-44.
07 Hubbs, C.L. and E.C. Raney. 1946. Endemic fish fauna of Lake
Waccamaw, North Carolina. Misc. Publ., Univ. of Mich. Mus. Zool.
65:1-30.
08 Lee, D.S., C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutts, R.E. Jenkins, E.E.
MacAllister, and J.R. Staufer, Jr. 1980. Atlas of North American
freshwater fishes. NC State Mus. of Nat. Hist., Raleigh.
i-x + 867 pp.
09 Lindqist, D.G. 1981. Endemic fishes of Lake Waccamaw. Kin'Lin'
2(5):38-41.
10 Lindquist, D.G. and C.G. Yarbrough. 1982. Status of the endemic
ichthyofauna of Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina. NC Endangered
Species Restor. Tech. Rept. E-1-VI-1-61. 108 pp.
11 National Technical Information Service. 1973. Compendium of
National Eutrophication Survey lakes in North Carolina--Lake
Waccamaw. Working Pap. No. 391. NTIS Accession No. PB-252 047/AB.
Springfield, VA.
12 North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community
Development. Nov. 26, 1984. Lake Waccamaw Water Quality Committee
Rept., Raleigh. 16 pp.
13 Palmer, C.M. 1969. A composite rating of algae tolerating organic
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species SILVERSIDE, WACCAMAW
Species Id ESIS254014
Date 13 MAR 96

pollution. J. Phycology 5:78-82.
14 Reynolds, W.W. and M.E. Casterlin. 1981. Thermal preferenda and
diel activity patterns of fishes from Lake Waccamaw. Brimleyana
7:55-60.
15 Shute, J.R., P.W. Shute, and D.G. Lindquist. 1981. Fishes of the
Waccamaw River Drainage. Brimleyana 6:1-24.
16 Vollenweider, R.A. 1968. Scientific fundamentals of the
eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with particular
reference to phosphorus and nitrogen as factors in eutrophication.
OECD Tech. Rept. DAS/CSI/68.27 (revised 1971). 159 pp.

References - 3