(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
OTHER COMMON NAMES - MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED; MUSSEL, PIMPLEBACK, ORANGE-FOOTED; PIMPLEBACK, ORANGE-FOOTED; PIMPLEBACK; PIGTOE, WARTY; PIGTOE and CUMBERLAND
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Aquatic Molluscs
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - MOLLUSCA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - BIVALVIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - UNIONOIDA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - UNIONIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - PLETHOBASUS,
SPECIES AND SSP - COOPERIANUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - PLETHOBASUS COOPERIANUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Orange-footed Pearly Mussel
Plethobasus cooperianus (Lea, 1834)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Clam
PHYLUM: Mollusca CLASS: Bivalvia
ORDER: Unionoida FAMILY: Unionidae
P. cooperianus is a medium-sized Interior Basin species, reaching
up to 95 mm in length (01,02). The shell is solid and heavy, nearly
circular or subtriangular in outline with high beaks directed forward
(03). Posterior ridge is low and rounded on young specimens and often
absent in large adults. The shell surface is marked by concentric,
irregular growth checks and variable raised pustules on the posterior
two-thirds of the valves (03). The periostracum varies from
yellow-brown to chestnut-brown in color and is darker on old
specimens. Young specimens often have faint green rays (01). Beak
cavity is compressed and deep; anterior muscle scars are deep and
posterior scars are shallow (03). Nacre color is white or pink inside
the pallial line, more intense toward the hinge teeth and irridescent
posteriorly (03,04,05). No sexual dimorphism occurs in this species.
Lea collected this species in 1834 from the Ohio River, but
Rafinesque may have collected it from the Ohio in 1820 under the
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
binomial Unio striata. Although P. cooperianus is the generally
accepted name in most of the recent literature, the binomial
Plethobasus striatus (Rafinesque, 1820) occasionally appears (03).
Detailed descriptions and photographs of P. cooperianus are
included in previous publications (01,03.06).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Endangered
Kentucky; Federal Endangered
Kentucky; State Recognized
Tennessee; Federal Endangered
Tennessee; State Listed
West Virginia; Federal Endangered
E: Federal Endangered
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The orange-footed pearly mussel (Plethobasus cooperianus) has
been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16
U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status wherever
found including the States identified in the Federal Register which
include Alabama, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and
Tennessee. The Iowa distribution for this species was in error.
(See Occurrence narrative for specific past and present distribution
information).
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
DOD (COE) -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Illinois, Ohio and Tennessee
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (IL) Department of Conservation;
(OH) Department of Natural Resources;
Division of Wildlife;
(TN) Wildlife Resources Agency.
STATE STATUTES: (IL) Illinois Endangered Species Protection Act
of 1972, Illinois Revised Statutes, Chapter 8,
Section 331-340;
(OH) Ohio Revised Code, Chapter 1517 and 1518,
Section 1531;
(TN) Proclamations 75-15, 76-4 and amendments.
STATE: Indiana
DESIGNATED STATUS: Rare and Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Department of Natural Resources
STATE STATUTES: Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation Act,
Indiana Code, Sec. 14-2-8.5-1 through
14-2-8.5-14
STATE: Kentucky and Pennsylvania
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: (KY) Dept. of Fish & Wildlife Resources;
(PA) Game Commission.
STATE STATUTES: (KY) Kentucky Fish and Wildlife Codes, 150.183,
Importing, transporting, or possessing
endangered species or wildlife;
(PA) 58 Penn. Code Subsec. 147.1 and 147.21.
STATE: Alabama and West Virginia
DESIGNATED STATUS: None.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
CITES I
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
There are no known commercial values for this species. However,
the species' sedentary nature and filter feeding habits may make it
useful as a water quality indicator. It has been shown that mussels
Status - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
accumulate such pollutants as heavy metals and pesticides.
74/10/17:39 FR 37078/37079 - Notice of review
75/09/26:40 FR 44329/44333 - Proposed rule
76/06/14:41 FR 24062/24067 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
76/06/16:41 FR 24367/24378 - Proposed CITES I
77/02/22:42 FR 10484/10485 - Final CITES I
81/02/27:46 FR 14652/ - Five year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25523/25528 - Notice of review
Status - 3 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Streams and Canals
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial UB1
Riverine, upper perennial SB1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
P. cooperianus is a species found in medium to large rivers with
sand and gravel substrates (01). It has been reported from silt-free
gravel in the Tennessee River (12) and in sand and gravel substrate of
the lower Ohio River, in 15-29 feet of water (01). Although reported
typically in deep water (02), it did occur in the shallower shoals of
the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Ohio Rivers in sand and gravel
substrate (03). The species does not occur in the impounded sections
of rivers and is apparently quite sedentary in the substrate. Nothing
is known about specific environmental requirements for adults or any
other life stage.
Habitat of the glochidia is initially within the gills of the
female, then in the water column, and finally attached to a suitable
fish host. Any alteration of these life stage-specific habitats
during its life cycle would likely affect the long-term success of a
population. Habitat requirements or associations for the juvenile
stage are unknown.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Detritus
General Bacteria
General Phytoplankton
General Diatoms
General Zooplankton
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
There are no known interspecific differences in feeding among
freshwater mussels (07). The glochidia are obligate parasites on the
gills or fins of fish. Adult mussels are filter-feeders and consume
particulate matter suspended in the water column. Identifiable
stomach contents almost invariable include mud, desmids, diatoms,
other unicellular algae, protozoa, and zooplankters (13,14). No study
of the food habits of P. cooperianus has been conducted;
required/preferred foods are therefore unknown.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Non-territorial.
The species is sedentary during its adult life and generally
occurs in rivers with others of its kind.
PERIODICITY:
No known periodicity.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Non-migratory.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
This species now occurs in large rivers with clean sand and
gravel substrate. Present distribution includes deep water sections
(20-30 ft) of these rivers (01,02). No species-specific information
on cover/shelter is available in the literature.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
P. cooperianus is a flowing water species that occurs in sand
and gravel substrate in large rivers (01). Since this species is
believed to be sedentary and movement is inconsequential, this is the
type of environment where all life history processes are carried out,
including reproduction.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The reproductive cycle of P. cooperianus is presumed to be
similar to other freshwater mussels. During spawning, males discharge
sperm into the water column, and the sperm are taken in by the females
during siphoning. Eggs are fertilized in the female's suprabranchial
cavity or gills, which serve as marsupia for embryos developing to the
parasitic stage (glochidia). Glochidia are released by the female and
must attach to a suitable fish host for metamorphosis to the
free-living juvenile stage.
This species is probably a short-term breeder, spawning in spring
and releasing glochidia in summer (01,12,15,16). Soft parts of the
female are typically pink or orange, and glochidia are probably pink,
semi-oval, and hookless, similar to those of p. cyphyus (02,17). Fish
hosts are unknown.
PARENTAL CARE:
Except for retention of the glochidia within the gills of the
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
female prior to release, no parental care occurs.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
No information exists on the population biology of this species.
The species is apparently taken occasionally by commercial musselmen
(01).
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
The required fish hosts for the parasitic glochidia of this
species are unknown (01).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
This species was apparently quite common in the Ohio River
between St. Marys and Marietta (02), in the Wabash River (18), and in
the Cumberland River (16). Its decline has been relatively rapid, and
it appears headed for extinction.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Beneficial Restricting Timber Harvest
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Adverse Incidental Capturing/Killing
Existing Incidental Capturing/Killing
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Underground Mines
Existing Underground Mines
Adverse Surface Mines
Existing Surface Mines
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Water Temperature Alteration
Existing Water Temperature Alteration
Adverse Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Existing Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse
Existing
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The mussel fauna in most streams of the Tennessee River drainage
has been impacted by dam construction, channelization, siltation, and
water pollution, which directly affect all mussel species (01,07).
The change from lotic to lentic conditions because of dams has also
altered the species composition of the fish community, thus
jeopardizing the reproductive success of some mussel species by
eliminating required fish hosts. Although siltation has been
suggested as the most significant adverse effect of impoundments on
mussels (07), other detrimental factors include lowered water
temperatures, pH changes, oxygen depletion, and dewatering of mussel
beds below dams (07). Mussel deaths can occur in substrate on which
0.6-2.5 cm of silt has accumulated, resulting in interference with
feeding and suffocation (08). The siphoning period and metabolic rate
of mussels can also be affected by such contaminants as heavy metals
and agricultural chemicals (09).
Water pollution has probably contributed to the decline of this
species. Acid mine drainage in tributaries of the Cumberland River
has reduced the diverse mussel assemblage that occurred there (10).
Numerous tributaries in the upper Tennessee River drainage were
polluted already by the twentieth century, and the mussel fauna was in
a decline at that time (11). Coal waste from mining activities in
both Tennessee and Cumberland River tributaries has contributed
additional particulate and chemical pollutants.
All of the factors mentioned above (impoundments, siltation, coal
mining, and water pollution) are still considered potential threats to
remaining populations of P. cooperianus. Other factors that may also
be affecting this species include incidental taking by commercial
musselmen, invasion of the Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) into the
Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, and the smaller gene pool which may
be approaching the minimum population size needed for sufficient
genetic variation to respond to environmental changes.
Substantial mussel die-offs of unknown origin also pose a
direct threat to the species' survival. A massive die-off over
a three year period, with estimated mortalities of 95 percent,
may eliminate the best population below Pickwick Dam.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Orange-footed Pearly Mussel
Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 44 pp.
Recovery actions for the orange-footed pearly mussel include:
(1) Conduct population and habitat surveys to determine the status
and range of the species.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
(2) Determine specific threats to the species. Threats to mussel
species typically include road construction, dredging, herbicide or
pesticide spraying, and chlorinated effluents.
(3) Continue to utilize existing legal mechanisms to protect the
species and its habitat. Solicit help from local, state, and federsl
developmental and enforcement agencies that related to impacts on the
species such as strip mining, logging, dredging, channelization, road
and bridge construction, industrial development and farm management.
Prohibit collecting for commercial or scientific purposes.
(4) Identify essential habitat areas in need of protection. Utilize
mussel sanctuaries and land acquisition where feasible.
(5) Determine the feasibility and methods for reintroduction into the
species historic range and reintroduce where feasible. It is unlikely
that removal of this species from the list of Federal endangered and
threatened species is possible without expansion of the existing
populations and establishment of new populations in other rivers.
Except for enforcement of regulations, there are no recovery
efforts presently underway for this species.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for the
Orange-footed Pearly Mussel, Plethobasus cooperianus (Lea, 1834).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 44 pp.
02 Ortmann, A.E. 1919. A monograph of the naiades of Pennsylvania
Pt.3 Systematic account of the genera and species. Mem. Carnegie
Mus. 8:1-389.
03 Bogan, A.E. and P.W. Parmalee. 1983. Tennessee's rare wildlife
Volume II: the mollusks. Tenn. Wildl. Resour. Agency, Tenn. Dep.
Conserv. and Tenn. Heritage Prog., Univ. Tenn., Knoxville, TN.
123 pp.
04 Simpson, C.T. 1914. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naiades, or
Pearly Freshwater Mussels. Bryant Walker, Detroit, MI. 1540 pp.
05 Parmalee, P.W. 1967. The freshwater mussels of Illinois. Ill.
State Mus. Pop. Sci. Ser. 8:1-108.
06 Parker, W. and L. Dixon. 1980. Endangered and Threatened wildlife
of Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. N.C.
Agric. Ext. Serv. 116 pp.
07 Fuller, S.L.H. 1974. Clams and mussels (Mollusca:Bivalvia).
Pages 215-273. IN: C.W. Hart and S.L.H. Fuller (eds.), Pollution
Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates. Academic Press, N.Y.
08 Ellis, M.M. 1931. Some factors affecting the replacement of the
commercial fresh-water mussels. U.S. Bur. Fish. Circ. No.7. 10pp.
09 Salanki, J. 1979. Behavioural studies in mussels under changing
environmental conditions. Symp. Biol. Hung. 19:169-176.
10 Neel, J.K. and W.R. Allen. 1964. The mussel fauna of the upper
Cumberland Basin before its impoundment. Malacologia 1:417-459.
11 Ortmann, A.E. 1918. The nayades (freshwater mussels) of the upper
Tennessee drainage with notes on synonymy and distribution. Proc.
Am. Phil. Soc., Phila. 57:521-626.
12 Yokley, P., Jr. 1972. Freshwater mussel ecology, Kentucky Lake,
Tennessee. Tenn. Game Fish Comm. Proj. 4-46R. 133 pp.
13 Coker, R.E., A.F. Shira, H.W. Clark, and A.D. Howard. 1921.
Natural history and propagation of fresh-water mussels. Bull. U.S.
Bur. Fish. 37:77-181.
14 Churchill, E.P., Jr. and S.I. Lewis. 1924. Food and feeding in
freshwater mussels. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 39:439-471.
15 Utterback, W.I. 1915-1916. The naiades of Missouri. Am. Midl.
Nat. 4:41-52, 97-152, 181-204, 224-273, 311-327, 339-354, 389-400,
432-464.
16 Wilson, C.B. and H.W. Clark. 1914. The mussels of the Cumberland
River and its tributaries. U.S. Bur. Fish. Doc. No.781. 63 pp.
17 Ortmann, A.E. 1912. Notes upon the families and genera of the
nayades. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 8:222-365.
18 Call, R.E. 1900. A descriptive, illustrated catalogue of the
mollusca of Indiana. Ind. Dept. Geol. Nat. Resour. Annu. Rep.
24:335-535.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Recovery Plan for the
Orange-footed Pearly Mussel, Plethobasus cooperianus (Lea, 1834).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 44 pp.
02 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). 1979. Recent mollusk
investigations on the Tennessee River. Unpubl. data. Div. Envir.
Plan., Water Qual., Ecol. Branch, Muscle Shoals, AL. 126 pp.
03 Bogan, A.E., and P.W. Parmalee. 1983. Tennessee's rare wildlife
Volume II: the mollusks. Tenn. Wildl. Resour. Agency, Tenn. Dept.
Conserv., and Tenn. Heritage Prog., Univ. Tenn., Knoxville, TN.
123 pp.
04 Yokley, P., Jr. 1972. Freshwater mussel ecology, Kentucky Lake,
Tennessee. Tenn. Game Fish Comm. Proj. 4-46R. 133 pp.
05 Pardue, J.W. 1981. A survey of the mussels (Unionidae) of the
upper Tennessee River, 1978. Sterkiana 71:41-51.
06 Parmalee, P.W., W.E. Klippel, and A.E. Bogan. 1980. Notes on the
prehistoric and present status of the naiad fauna of the middle
Cumberland River, Smith County, Tennessee. Nautilus 94:93-105.
07 Ortmann, A.E. 1909. A preliminary list of the Unionidae of
western Pennsylvania, with new localities for species from eastern
Pennsylvania. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 5:178-210.
08 Goodrich, C., and H. van der Schalie. 1944. A revision of the
mollusca of Indiana. Am. Midl. Nat. 32:257-326.
09 Clench, W.J. and H. van der Schalie. 1944. Notes on naiades from
the Green, Salt, and Tradewater Rivers in Kentucky. Mich. Acad.
Sci. Arts Letters 29:223-229.
10 Ortmann, A.E. 1918. The nayades (freshwater mussles) of the upper
Tennessee drainage with notes on synonymy and distribution. Proc.
Am. Phil. Soc., Phila. 57:521-626.
11 Ortmann, A.E. 1925. The naiad fauna of the Tennessee River system
below Walden Gorge. Am. Midl. Nat. 9:321-372.
12 Isom, B.G. 1969. The mussel resources of the Tennessee River.
Malacologia 7:397-425.
13 Lewis, J. 1871. On the shells of the Holston River. Am. J.
Conch. 6:216-228.
14 Isom, B.G. and P. Yokley, Jr. 1968. The mussel fauna of the Duck
River in Tennessee, 1965. Am. Midl. Nat. 80:34-42.
15 Neel, J.K. and W.R. Allen. 1964. The mussel fauna of the upper
Cumberland Basin before its impoundment. Malacologia 1:427-459.
16 Simpson, C.T. 1914. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naiades, or
Pearly Freshwater Mussels. Bryant Walker, Detroit, MI. 1540 pp.
17 Williams, J.C. and G.A. Schuster. 1983. Freshwater mussel
investigations of the Ohio River from mile 317.0 to mile 981.0.
Report prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville
District. 102 pp.
18 Schuster, G.A. 1984. A survey of freshwater mussels from the Ohio
River at a proposed fleeting site at Ohio River miles
909.8 - 971.5. Report prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Louisville District. 14 pp.
19 Miller, A.C. and B.S. Payne. 1984. An investigation of freshwater
mussels on the Ohio River near Olmstead, Illinois 26-29 September
1983. U.S. Army Waterways Experimental Station, Environmental
Laboratory.
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, ORANGE-FOOTED
Species Id ESIS404007
Date 13 MAR 96
References - 4