(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
OTHER COMMON NAMES - PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED; MUSSEL, PEARLY, PIGTOE and FINE-RAYED
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Aquatic Molluscs
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - MOLLUSCA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - BIVALVIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - UNIONOIDA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - UNIONIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - FUSCONAIA,
SPECIES AND SSP - CUNEOLUS,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - FUSCONAIA CUNEOLUS
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Fine-rayed Pigtoe
Fusconaia cuneolus (Lea, 1840)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Clam
PHYLUM: Mollusca CLASS: Bivalvia
ORDER: Unionoida FAMILY: Unionidae
Fusconaia cuneolus is a medium-sized species usually
distinguished by periostracum with fine green rays on a yellow-green
to brown background. Indistinct growth checks and a satin-like
appearance characterize the shell surface. Valves are subtriangular
or subrhomboidal in shape with a median sulcus extending into the
umbonal region and high moderately full beaks curved forward (01).
The anterior end of the valve is rounded and the ventral margin is
nearly straight. Two irregular pseudocardinal teeth and double
lateral teeth occur in the left valve; one pseudocardinal tooth with a
vestigal tooth above it and a partly doubled lateral tooth is present
in the right valve (01). The beak cavity is moderately deep; the
pallial line is distinct anteriorly and nacre color is white. Valves
of male and female specimens exhibit no known dimorphism (02).
The headwater form of the fine-rayed pigtoe was described as Unio
cuneolus by Lea (1840) from the Holston River, Tennessee (03). The
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
large river form, Unio appressa, was described by Lea (1871) from the
Tennessee River, Alabama (04). These species were later assigned to
the genus Fusconaia: the large river form to the subspecies Fusconaia
cuneolus appressa (05). The federal listing of the species as
endangered includes both forms. A more detailed description and
photographs for species identification are available in previous
publications (01,02,06).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Alabama; Federal Endangered
Alabama; Unofficially Listed
Tennessee; Federal Endangered
Tennessee; State Listed
Virginia; Federal Endangered
Virginia; State Recognized
E: Federal Endangered
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The fine-rayed pigtoe (Fusconaia cuneolus) has been designated an
Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540),
as amended. The species has this status wherever found including
the States of Alabama, Tennessee, and Virginia.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD (COE) -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Alabama
UNOFFICIAL LIST: Endangered, Bulletin No.2, Endangered and
Threatened Plants and Animals of Alabama,
Alabama Museum of Natural History
STATE: Tennessee
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Wildlife Resources Agency
STATE STATUTES: TN Code Ann., Chapter 17, Sec. 11-1701 through
11-1715. Proclamations 75-15, 76-4 and
amendments
STATE: Virginia
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries
STATE STATUTES: State Code 29.230 to 29.237
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
CITES I
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
There are no known commercial values, however, the species'
sedentary nature and filter-feeding habits may make it useful as a
water quality indicator. It has been shown that mussels accumulate
such pollutants as heavy metals and pesticides.
74/10/17:39 FR 37078/37079 - Notice of review
75/09/26:40 FR 44329/44333 - Proposed rule
76/06/14:41 FR 24062/24067 - Final rule, listed as Endangered
76/06/16:41 FR 24367/24378 - Proposed - CITES I
77/02/22:42 FR 10484/10485 - Final - CITES I
81/02/27:46 FR 14652/ - Five year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25523/25528 - Notice of review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Streams and Canals
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial UB1
Riverine, upper perennial SB1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Fusconaia cuneolus, like most Fusconaia spp., is typically a
riffle and run species that inhabits ford and shoal areas of
free-flowing streams with moderate gradient. It has been collected at
a water depth of 3 feet in the sandy and rocky substrate of the Clinch
River (24) as well as in the sandy-muddy bottom of a small creek (25).
The species is intolerant of lentic conditions and has been extirpated
from many river sections that were impounded within its historic range
(02).
The species is apparently quite sedentary and usually well-buried
in coarse substrate with only siphons exposed (26). In the Clinch
River it is found in areas with firm cobble and gravel substrates and
rarely occur in backwaters or pools (02). The species, therefore,
appears intolerant of silt and requires ample water flow and stable
substrate for survival.
Habitat of the glochidia is initially within the gills of the
female, then in the water column, and finally attached to a suitable
fish host. Any alteration of these life stage-specific habitats
during its life cycle would likely affect the long-term success of a
population. Habitat requirements or associations for the juvenile
stage are unknown. Specific environmental requirements for the
species are unknown but the seasonal range of environmental
paramenters in the Clinch is apparently within its tolerance limits.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Detritus
General Bacteria
General Phytoplankton
General Diatoms
General Zooplankton
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
There are no known interspecific differences in feeding among
adult freshwater mussels (07). The glochidia of the fine-rayed pigtoe
are obligate parasites on the gills or fins of fish (02).
Adult freshwater mussels are filter-feeders and consume
particulate matter suspended in the water column. Identifiable
stomach contents almost invariably include mud, desmids, diatoms, and
other unicellular algae, protozoa, and zooplankters (27). No study
on the food habits of the fine-rayed pigtoe has been conducted;
required/preferred foods are, therefore, unknown.
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Non-territorial. The species is sedentary during its adult life
and generally occurs in sections of the river with others of its kind.
PERIODICITY:
The species exhibits a seasonal periodicity (26). During the
spawning period, it is in the surface layer of the river bottom and
readily visible. After spawning, it occurs slightly deeper in the
substrate and is barely visible.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Non-migratory.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
The fine-rayed pigtoe was reported at a water depth of 3 ft. in
the sandy-muddy substrate of the Clinch River (24). The species can
occur in a wide range of water depths and stable substrates as long as
adequate flow occurs in these areas. No species specific information
on cover/shelter is available in the literature.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
Fusconaia cuneolus is typically a riffle species that inhabits
ford and shoal areas in free-flowing streams of moderate gradient
(02). The species is encountered most frequently in riffle and run
areas of firm cobble and gravel substrate (02). Since mussels are
sedentary and movement is inconsequential, this is the type of
environment where all life processes, including reproduction, are
carried out.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The reproductive cycle of F. cuneolus is presumed to be similar
to other freshwater mussels. During spawning males discharge sperm
into the water column, and the sperm are taken in by the females
during siphoning. Eggs are fertilized in the female's subrabranchial
cavity or gills, which serve as marsupia for embryos developing to the
parasitic stage (glochidia). Glochidia are released by the female and
must attach to a suitable fish host for metamorphosis to the
free-living juvenile stage. The fish hosts for this species have not
been determined. All other aspects of the species' reproductive
biology are unknown (02).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
PARENTAL CARE:
Except for retention of the glochidia within the gills of the
female prior to release, no parental care occurs.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
Little information exists on the population biology of this
species. Maximum age of specimens collected from the Clinch River, VA
was 35 years (28). Densities of fine-rayed pigtoes in the Clinch
River ranged from 0 to 0.3 per square meter (17). No other
information is available on the population biology of this species.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
Freshwater mussels serve as food for muskrats and raccoons.
Muskrat predation on the fine-rayed pigtoe occurs at several locations
on the Clinch River and is presently being studied through a contract
with the Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries (26).
The required fish hosts for the parasitic glochidia of this
species are unknown (02).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Beneficial Regulating commercial harvest levels
Adverse Surface Mines
Existing Surface Mines
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Water Temperature Alteration
Existing Water Temperature Alteration
Adverse Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Existing Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse
Existing
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The mussel fauna in many streams of the upper Tennessee River
drainage has been impacted by dam construction, channelization,
siltation, and water pollution, which directly affect all mussel
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
species (02,07). This change from lotic to lentic habitat has also
altered the species composition of the fish community, thus
jeopardizing the reproductive success of some mussel species by
removing required fish hosts (02). A total of 51 impoundments on the
Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers have eliminated large sections of
riverine habitat within the historic range of the fine-rayed pigtoe
(02). Although siltation has been suggested as the most significant
adverse affect of impoundments on mussels (07), other detrimental
factors include lowered water temperatures, pH changes, oxygen
depletion, and dewatering of mussel beds below dams (07). Mussel
deaths can occur in substrate on which 0.6-2.5 mm of silt has
accumulated resulting in interference with feeding and suffocation
(08). The siphoning period and metabolic rate of mussels can also be
affected by such contaminants as heavy metals and agricultural
chemicals (09).
Coal waste from mining activities has contributed additional
particulate matter to natural sediment loads particularly in the
Powell River and upper tributaries of the Clinch River (10). In
laboratory experiments with coal fines in suspension and coal waste in
the substrate, normal feeding activity and movements of mussels has
been affected (11). Negative impacts on mussels from coal mining,
coal washing, and fly ash waste have been identified as major problems
to mussel recovery in the Clinch River (07).
Water pollution is another major factor that has contributed to
the Endangered status of the fine-rayed pigtoe. The species has been
eliminated from the North Fork Holston River, VA as a result of
chlorides, other effluents, and mercury from a now defunct chemical
plant at Saltville (12). The North Fork was affected for roughly 80
river miles (128 km) downstream (13) and the fine-rayed pigtoe now
occurs only in the lower section of this river in Tennessee (02).
On the Clinch River, the range of this species was severely
reduced by chemical spills in 1967 and again in 1970 at the APCO steam
plant in Carbo, VA (14). The fauna was eliminated for roughly 18
river miles (28 km) below Carbo in 1967 and again for 11 river miles
(18 km) in 1970 (15). Recent biological surveys indicate that the
mussel fauna has not recovered from these spills (16,17,18).
Siltation from soil erosion reduces light penetration, alters
heat exchange in the water and allows organic and toxic substances to
precipitate to the bottom and affect benthic organisms (08). This
physical process leads to oxygen depletion and the possible absorption
of toxicants by mussels (19). Erosion silt is now a common element of
the impounded Tennessee River, much of it originating from surrounding
agricultural land (20,21,22).
The invasion of the Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) into
eastern rivers has been implicated as a competitor of freshwater
mussels (23). This exotic clam is now widespread in the Tennessee
drainage and may be affecting populations of the fine-rayed pigtoe.
As with all environmental disturbances previously mentioned, no
species specific data exist to document the deleterious effects of
these impacts on the fine-rayed pigtoe. One can only assume that
most, if not all, mussels respond similarly to the same environmental
perturbations.
Substantial mussel die-offs of unknown origin that have
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
occurred in the Tennessee River drainage since 1982 also pose a
direct threat to the species' survival.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Fine-rayed Pigtoe Pearly
Mussel Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA.
67 pp.
Recovery actions for the fine-rayed pigtoe include:
(1) Conduct population and habitat surveys to determine the status
and range of the species.
(2) Determine specific threats. Coal mining and toxic spills are
known negative impacts for some populations of this species. Major
threats for other populations need to be assessed and are likely to
involve road and bridge construction, poor land use practices,
channelization, gravel dredging, flood control and pesticide use.
(3) Coordinate management efforts with municiple, state and federal
agencies associated with the impacts mentioned under (2). Provide
protection from commercial and noncommercial collection.
(4) Identify essential habitat areas in need of protection. Utilize
scenic, wild, and recreational river status, land easements, mussel
sanctuaries, and land acquisition where feasible. Continue to utilize
existing legal mechanisms to protect the species and its habitat.
(5) Determine the feasibility of introducing the species to new or
currently inhabited stream and river systems and determine successful
methods of establishing these populations (e.g. adult, juvenile, or
infected fish host transplants, or introducing artificially cultured
individuals).
Ongoing recovery efforts involve studies to determine the impact
of chlorine, enforcement of regulations, information/education effort,
and the distribution of juvenile mussels.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Bogan, A.E. and P.W. Parmalee. 1983 Tennessee's rare wildlife.
volumn II: the mollusks. Tenn. Wildl. Resour. Agency, Tenn. Dep.
Conserv., and Tenn. Heritage Prog. 123 pp.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Recovery Plan for the
Fine-rayed Pigtoe Pearly Mussel, Fusconaia cuneolus. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Region 4, Atlanta, GA. 62 pp.
03 Lea, I. 1840. Descriptions of new fresh water and land shells.
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila. 1:284-289.
04 Lea, I. 1871. Description of twenty new species of unionines of
the United States. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. 1871:189-193.
05 Ortmann, A.E. 1918. The nayades (freshwater mussels) of the upper
Tennessee drainage with notes on synonymy and distribution. Proc.
Am. Phil. Soc., Phil. 57:521-626.
06 Parker, W. and L. Dixon. 1980. Endangered and Threatened wildlife
of Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. NC.
Agric. Ext. Serv. 122 pp.
07 Ahlstedt, S.A. 1984. Twentieth century changes in the freshwater
mussel fauna of the Clinch River (Tennessee and Virginia). M.S.
Thesis, Univ. Tenn., Knoxville, TN.
08 Ellis, M.M. 1936. Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic
environments. Ecology 17:29-42.
09 Salanki, J. 1979. Behavioural studies in mussels under changing
environmental conditions. Symp. Biol. Hung. 19:169-176.
10 Ahlstedt, S.A. and S.R. Brown. 1980. The naiad fauna of the
Powell River in Virginia and Tennessee (Bivalvia:Unionacea). Bull.
Am. Malacol. Union 1979:40-43.
11 Kitchel, H.E., J.C. Widlak, and R.J. Neves. 1981. The impact of
coal-mining wastes on endangered mussel populations in the Powell
River, Lee County, Virginia. Final report to State Water Control
Board, Richmond, VA. 26 pp.
12 Carter, L.J. 1977. Chemical plants leave unexpected legacy in
two Virginia rivers. Science 198:1015-1020.
13 Turner, C.S. 1982. Mercury in the fish and sediment of the North
Fork Holston River (1981). Va. State Water Control Board Rep.
B 75-028. 21 pp.
14 Raleigh, R.F., D.H. Bennett, and L.O. Mohn. 1978. Changes in fish
stocks after major kills in the Clinch River near St. Paul,
Virginia. Am. Midl. Nat. 99:1-9.
15 Cairns, J., J.S. Crossman, K.L. Dickson and E.E. Herricks. 1971.
The recovery of damaged streams. Assoc. Southeast. Biol. Bull.
18:79-106.
16 Bates, J.M. and S.D. Dennis. 1978. The mussel fauna of the Clinch
River, Tennessee and Virginia. Sterkiana 69-70:3-23.
17 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1979. An evaluation of mussel
populations in the Clinch River, Tennessee and Virginia.
Unpublished data. Div. Water Resour., Fish. Aquat. Ecol. Branch,
Norris, TN. 14 pp.
18 Neves, R.J., G.B. Pardue, E.F. Benfield, and S.D. Dennis. 1980.
An evaluation of Endangered mollusks in Virginia. Final Rep. Va.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
Comm. Game Inland Fish. Proj. No. E-F-1. Richmond, VA. 140 pp.
19 Harman, W.N. 1974. The effects of reservoir construction and
channelization on the mollusks of the upper Delaware watershed.
Bull. Am. Malacol. Union 1973:12-14.
20 Scruggs, G.D., Jr. 1960. Status of freshwater mussel stocks in
the Tennessee River. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec. Rep. Fish.
No.37:1-41.
21 Bates, J.M. 1962. The impact of impoundment on the mussel fauna
of Kentucky Reservoir, Tennessee River. Am. Midl. Nat.
68:232-236.
22 Williams, J.C. 1969. Mussel fishery investigation Tennessee,
Ohio and Green Rivers. Final Report, Kentucky Proj No. 4-19-R.
107 pp.
23 Fuller, S.L.H. and J.W. Richardson. 1977. Amensalistic
competition between Corbicula manilensis (Phillipi), the asiatic
clam (Corbiculidae) and freshwater mussels (Unionidae) in the
Savannah River of Georgia and South Carolina (Mollusca:Bivalvia).
Assoc. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 24:52 (Abstract).
24 Hickman, M.E. 1937. A contribution to mollusca of east Tennessee.
M.S. Thesis, Univ. Tenn., Knoxville, TN. 165 pp.
25 Ortmann, A.E. 1925. The naiad - fauna of the Tennessee River
system below Walden Gorge. Am. Midl. Nat. 9:321-372.
26 Neves, R.J. 1984. Personal observations. Virginia Coop. Fish.
Res. Unit, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061.
27 Coker, R.E., A.E. Shira, H.W. Clark, and A.D. Howard. 1921.
Natural history and propagation of fresh-water mussels. Bull. U.S.
Bur. Fish. 37:77-181.
28 Moyer, S.N. 1984. Age and growth characteristics of selected
freshwater mussel species from Southwestern Virginia, with an
evaluation of mussel aging techniques. M.S. Thesis, VPI & SU,
Blacksburg, VA. 176 pp.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Recovery Plan for the
Fine-rayed Pigtoe Pearly Mussel, Fusconaia cuneolus. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Region 4, Atlanta, GA. 62 pp.
02 Ahlstedt, S.A. 1984. Personal communication. TVA, Norris, TN.
03 Carter, L.J. 1977. Chemical plants leave unexpected legacy in
two Virginia rivers. Science 198:1015-1020.
04 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). 1979a. An evaluation of mussel
populations in the Powell River, Tennessee and Virginia.
Unpublished data. Div. Water Resour., Fish. Aquat. Ecol. Branch.
Norris, TN.
14 pp.
05 Ahlstedt, S.A. and S.R. Brown. 1980. The naiad fauna of the
Powell River in Virginia and Tennessee (Bivalvia:Unionacea). Bull.
Am. Malacol. Union 1979:40-43.
06 Barr, W.C., S.A. Ahlstedt, G.D. Hickman, and D.M. Hill. 1982.
Cumberlandian mollusk conservation program - activity 8:
macrofauna analysis. TVA, Knoxville, TN.
07 Ahlstedt, S.A. 1984. Twentieth century changes in the freshwater
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
mussel fauna of the Clinch River (Tennessee and Virginia). M.S.
Thesis, Univ. Tenn., Knoxville, TN.
08 Neves, R.J., G.B. Pardue, E.F. Benfield, and S.D. Dennis. 1980.
An evaluation of endangered mollusks in Virginia. Final Rep. Va.
Comm. Game Inland Fish. Proj. No. E-F-1. Richmond, VA. 140 pp.
09 Ahlstedt, S.A. 1981. The molluscan fauna of Copper Creek (Clinch
River system) in southwestern Virginia. Bull. Am. Malacol. Union
1980:4-6.
10 Ahlstedt, S.A. 1983. The molluscan fauna of the Elk River in
Tennessee and alabama. Am. Malacol. Bull. 1:43-50.
11 Tennessee Valley Authority. Unpublished field records compiled by
Steven Ahlstedt from the Elk, Paint Rock, Estill Fork, Sequatchie,
Little River and Hurricane Creek. Off. Nat. Resour., East Area
Field Oper. Group, Norris, TN.
12 Hatcher, R.M. 1982. Survey of Endangered and Threatened mollusks
in Tennessee streams. Tenn. Wildl. Resour. Agency, Nashville, TN.
24 pp.
13 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1980. Freshwater mussels of the
Nolichucky River. Unpublished data. Off. Nat. Resour., East Area
Field Oper. Group, Norris, TN.
14 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1979b. A qualitative survey of fish
and macroinvertebrates of the French Broad River and selected
tributaries. June-August 1977. Unpublished data. Off. Nat.
Resour., East. Area Field Oper. Group, Norris, TN.
15 Isom, B.G. and P. Yokley. 1973. The mussels of the Flint and
Paint Rock River systems in the southwest slope of the Cumberland
Plateau in North Alabama - 1965-1968. Am. Midl. Nat. 89:442-446.
16 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1980b. Freshwater mussels of the
Buffalo River. Unpublished data. Off. Nat. Resour., East. Area
Field Oper. Group., Norris, TN.
17 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1981. Freshwater mussels of the
Holston river. Unpublished data. Off. Nat. Resour., East. Area
Field Oper. Group, Norris, TN.
18 Lea, I. 1840. Descriptions of new fresh water and land shells.
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila. 1:284-289.
19 Stansbery, D.H. and W.J. Clench. 1975. The Pleuroceridae and
Unionidae of the Middle Fork Holston River in Virginia. Bull. Am.
Malacol. Union 1974:51-54.
20 Ortmann, A.E. 1918. The nayades (freshwater mussels) of the upper
Tennessee drainage with notes on synonymy and distribution . Proc.
Am. Phil. Soc., Phil. 57:521-626.
21 Stansbery, D.H. and W.J. Clench. 1978. The Pleuroceridae and
Unionidae of the upper South Fork Holston River in Virginia. Bull.
Am. Malacol. Union 1977:75-78.
22 Cahn, A.R. 1936. The molluscan fauna of the Clinch River below
Norris Dam upon completion of that structure. Unpublished TVA
Rep., Norris, TN.
23 Hickman, M.E. 1937. A contribution to mollusca of east Tennessee.
M.S. Thesis, Univ. Tenn., Knoxville, TN. 165 pp.
24 Stansbery, D.H. 1970. Eastern freshwater mollusks (I) the
Mississippi and St. Lawrence River systems. Malacologia 10:9-22.
25 Stansbery, D.H. 1973. A preliminary report on the naiad fauna
of the Clinch River in the southern Appalachian mountains of
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species PIGTOE, FINE-RAYED
Species Id ESIS404008
Date 13 MAR 96
Virginia and Tennessee (Mollusca:Bivalvia:Unionidae). Bull. Am.
Malacol. Union 1972:20-22.
26 Ortmann, A.E. 1925. The naiad - fauna of the Tennessee River
system below Walden Gorge. Am. Midl. Nat. 9:321-372.
27 Isom, B.G., P. Yokley, and C.G. Gooch. 1973. Mussels of the Elk
River basin in Alabama and Tennessee, 1965 - 1968. Am. Midl. Nat.
89:437-442.
References - 4