(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
OTHER COMMON NAMES - MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN;MONKEYFACE and APPALACHIAN
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Aquatic Molluscs
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - MOLLUSCA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - BIVALVIA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - UNIONOIDA,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - UNIONIDAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - QUADRULA,
SPECIES AND SSP - SPARSA,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - QUADRULA SPARSA
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Appalachian Monkeyface Pearly Mussel
Quadrula sparsa (Lea, 1841)
KINGDOM: Animal GROUP: Clam
PHYLUM: Mollusca CLASS: Bivalvia
ORDER: Unionoida FAMILY: Unionidae
The appalachian monkeyface is a medium-sized species, with a
sub-quadrate to sub-triangulate outline (01). Beaks are elevated and
occur in the middle of the shell (02). The posterior ridge extends
from the umbos to the postventral margin, and the sulcus above the
posterior ridge ends in a shallow sinus (02). The hinge ligament is
very short and thick, and the shell surface is sparsely covered with
small tubercles (03). Tubercles are lacking on the anterior third of
the shell. The outer shell layer (periostracum) is yellow-green to
brown in color, often with small greenish chevrons or triangles (03).
Nacre color is generally white, but some specimens may be
salmon-colored posteriorly (04). The beak cavity is deep and
compressed.
This species has a superficial resemblance to several species in
the Q. metanevra complex. It may be that Q. sparsa is the headwater
form of Q. metanevra, but necessary evidence is lacking (01). It can
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
be separated from Q. metanevra by the following characters: more
compressed, lacks knobs on the posterior ridge, smaller tubercles,
and greenish triangles on the periostracum (01). Early malacologists
treated Q. sparsa and Q. intermedia as synonyms.
Photographs and additional taxonomic descriptions of this species
are included in several publications (02,03,05).
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Tennessee; Federal Endangered
Tennessee; State Listed
Virginia; Federal Endangered
Virginia; State Recognized
E: Federal Endangered
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The Appalachian monkeyface pearly mussel (Quadrula sparsa) has
been designated an Endangered species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.11; P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884;
16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The species has this status
wherever found including the States of Tennessee and Virginia.
This species is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to import,
export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any wild
animal (alive or dead including parts, products, eggs, or offspring):
(1) in interstate or foreign commerce if taken, possessed,
transported or sold in violation of any State law or
regulation; or
(2) if taken or possessed in violation of any U.S. law,
treaty, or regulation or in violation of Indian tribal law.
It is also unlawful to possess any wild animal (alive or dead
including parts, products, eggs, and offspring) within the U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in
18 U.S.C. 7) that is taken, possessed, transported, or sold in
violation of any State law or regulation, foreign law, or Indian
tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
DOD (COE) -Responsible for the law enforcement/protection of this
species with applicable State and Federal laws on
public land under their control. Also responsible for
management/recovery on Department of Defense lands.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
STATE: Tennessee
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Wildlife Resources Agency
STATE STATUTES: TN Annotated Code, Chapter 9, Section 51-901
through 51-912, also Proclamations 75-15, 76-4
and amendments.
STATE: Virginia
DESIGNATED STATUS: Recognized Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries
STATE STATUTES: State Code 29.230 to 29.237.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS:
CITES I
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
There are no known commerical values for this species, however,
its sedentary nature and filter feeding habits may make it useful as a
water quality indicator. It has been shown that mussels accumulate
such pollutants as heavy metals and pesticides.
74/10/17:39 FR 37078/37079 - Notice of review
75/09/26:40 FR 44329/44333 - Proposed rule
76/06/14:41 FR 24062/24067 - Final rule
76/06/16:41 FR 24367/24378 - Proposal - CITES I
77/02/22:42 FR 10484/10485 - Final - CITES I
81/02/27:46 FR 14652/14658 - Five year review
87/07/07:52 FR 25523/25528 - Notice of review
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - AQUATIC
INLAND AQUATIC
LAND USE -
Streams and Canals
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, upper perennial UB1
Riverine, upper perennial SB1
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Quadrula sparsa is typically a riffle and run species that
inhabits shallow ford and shoal areas of free-flowing streams with
moderate gradient. The species is apparently intolerant of lentic
conditions and has been extirpated from river sections that were
impounded within its historic range.
The species is sedentary and remains well-buried during most of
the year, with only siphons exposed (17). Fast-flowing water over
stable, relatively silt-free rubble, gravel, and sand substrates
describe the preferred habitat of this species (17).
Habitat of the glochidia is initially within the gills of the
female, then in the water column, and finally attached to a suitable
fish host. Any alteration of these life stage-specific habitats
during its life cycle would likely affect the long-term success of a
population. Habitat requirements or associations of the juvenile
stage are unknown.
Specific environmental parameters required by the species are
unknown. The seasonal ranges of temperature, pH, alkalinity,
turbidity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, flow, etc. in the
Clinch and Powell Rivers are believed to be within the tolerance range
of the Appalachian monkeyface.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Detritus
General Bacteria
General Phytoplankton
General Diatoms
General Zooplankton
General Fish
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
FOOD HABITS:
Adult freshwater mussels are filter-feeders and consume
particulate matter suspended in the water column. There are no known
interspecific differences in feeding among mussels (06). Identifiable
stomach contents almost invariably include mud, desmids, diatoms,
other unicellular algae, protozoa, and zooplankters (18,19). No study
on the food habits of the Appalachian monkeyface has been conducted;
required/preferred foods are therefore unknown.
The glochidia of the Appalachian monkeyface are probably obligate
parasites on the gills or fins of host fish (02).
HOME RANGE/TERRITORY:
Non-territorial. This species is sedentary during its adult life
and generally occurs in river sections with others of its kind.
PERIODICITY:
The species exhibits a seasonal periodicity (17). During the
spawning period, the female is at least partly exposed in the river
bottom and readily visible. After spawning, females occur deeper in
the substrate and are barely visible.
MIGRATION PATTERNS:
Non-migratory.
COVER/SHELTER REQUIREMENTS:
This species occurs in a wide range of water depths and stable
substrates, as long as adequate flow occurs in these areas (20). No
species-specific information on cover/shelter is available in the
literature.
REPRODUCTIVE SITE REQUIREMENTS:
The Appalachian monkeyface is categorized as a riffle species,
found in shallow, fast-flowing water with stable, clean substrate
(02). Since this species is sedentary and movement is
inconsequential, the riffle habitat is where all life history
processes, including reproduction, are conducted.
REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS:
The reproductive cycle of the Appalachian monkeyface is similar
to that of most freshwater mussels (02). During spawning, males
discharge sperm into the water column, and the sperm are taken in by
females during siphoning. Eggs are fertilized in the female's gills
or suprabranchial cavity, which serve as marsupia for embryos
developing to the parasitic stage (glochidia). Glochidia are released
by the female and must attach to a suitable fish host for
metamorphosis to the juvenile stage.
The Appalachian monkeyface is a short-term breeder, probably
spawning and releasing glochidia during spring and early summer (02).
Glochidia are bean-shaped and hookless (02). The fish host(s) for
Q. sparsa are unknown. Females of the genus Quadrula are noted for
aborting embryos in their gills (02).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
PARENTAL CARE:
Except for retention of the glochidia within the gills of the
female prior to release, no parental care occurs.
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
No information on the population biology of this species is
available.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
No fish host(s) for the parasitic glochidia of this species has
been identified (02).
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Maintaining/Controlling Water Flow
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Mining
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Road Maintainance Actions
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Land Acquisition
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Pesticide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Herbicide Use
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Agricultural Practice
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Restricting Poaching
Beneficial Controlling/Restricting Noncommercial Harvest
Adverse Surface Mines
Existing Surface Mines
Adverse Siltation
Existing Siltation
Adverse Water Temperature Alteration
Existing Water Temperature Alteration
Adverse Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Existing Dissolved Oxygen Reduction
Adverse Water Level Fluctuation
Existing Water Level Fluctuation
Adverse Reservoirs
Existing Reservoirs
Adverse Migration barriers
Existing Migration barriers
Adverse Dredging
Existing Dredging
Adverse Applying herbicides
Existing Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Existing Applying pesticides
Adverse Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Existing Environmental Contamination/Pollution
Adverse Competition
Existing Competition
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse
Existing
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
The mussel fauna in many streams of the upper Tennessee River
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
drainage has been impacted by dam construction, channelization,
siltation, and water pollution, which directly affect all mussel
species (02,06). A total of 51 impoundments on the Tennessee and
Cumberland Rivers has eliminated large sections of riverine habitat
within the historic range of the Appalachian monkeyface (02). The
Tennessee Valley Authority has 36 dams in the Tennessee River basin, 9
on the mainstem and the remainder on tributaries (02). This change
from lotic to lentic habitat has also altered the species composition
of the fish community, thus jeopardizing the reproductive success of
mussel species tolerant of standing water by eliminating required fish
hosts. Although siltation has been suggested as the most significant
adverse impact of impoundments on mussels (06), other detrimental
factors include lowered water temperatures, pH changes, oxygen
depletion, and dewatering of mussel beds below dams (06). Mussel
deaths can occur in substrate on which as little as 0.6 - 2.5 cm of
silt has accumulated, resulting in interference with feeding and
suffocation (07).
Coal waste from mining activities has contributed additional
particulate matter to natural sediment loads, particularly in the
Powell River and upper tributaries of the Clinch River (08). In
laboratory experiments with coal fines in suspension and coal waste in
the substrate, normal feeding activity and movements apparently are
affected (09). Negative impacts on most mussel species from coal
mining, coal washing, and fly ash waste have been identified as major
problems to mussel recovery in the Clinch River (02).
Water pollution is another major factor that has contributed to
the status of the Appalachian monkeyface (02). Many streams in
Tennessee and Virginia were already polluted in the early 1900's and
their mussel fauna gone (10). In the Clinch River, the range of this
species was reduced by chemical spills in 1967 and again in 1970 at
the Clinch River Steam Plant in Carbo, VA (11). The fauna apparently
was eliminated for roughly 18 river miles below Carbo in 1967 and
again for 11 river miles in 1970 (12). Recent biological surveys
indicate that the mussel fauna has not recovered from these spills
(13,14,15).
The invasion of the Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) into
eastern rivers has been implicated as a competitor of freshwater
mussels (16). This exotic clam is now widespread in the Tennessee
drainage and may be affecting populations of the Appalachian
monkeyface. As with all environmental disturbances previously
mentioned, no species-specific data exists to document the deleterious
effects of these factors on the Appalachian monkeyface. One can only
assume that most if not all mussels respond similarly to environmental
perturbations.
Substantial mussel die-offs of unknown origin that have
occurred in the Tennessee and Cumberland River drainages since
1982 pose a direct threat to the species' survival.
APPROVED PLAN:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Appalachian Monkeyface Pearly
Mussel Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Atlanta, GA.
35 pp.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
Recovery actions for the Appalachian monkeyface pearly mussel
include:
(1) Continue to utilize existing legislation and regulations to
protect the species and its habitat.
(2) Conduct population and habitat surveys to determine the status
and range of the species.
(3) Determine present and forseeable threats to the species and
strive to minimize and/or eliminate them. These negative impacts are
likely to include coal mining and related pollutants, road
construction, dredging, herbicide and pesticide spraying, industrial
development, chlorinated effluents, the misuse of farm fertilizers,
and oil and gas drilling.
(4) Identify essential habitat in need of protection. Investigate
the use of Scenic River status, mussel sanctuaries, land acquisition,
and/or other means for the protection of this habitat and utilize
where feasible. Habitat restoration or improvement may be necessary
to improve conditions for survival of the speices (i.e., restoration
of stream banks and channels and assuring optimal clean water flow).
(5) Determine the feasibility of introducing the species back into
its historic range and introduce where feasible. Determine the best
methods for establishing new populations (e.g., introduction of adult
mussels, juveniles, infected fish hosts, artificially cultured
individuals and/or other means). It is unlikely that removal from the
list of Federal endangered and threatened species can be achieved
without the establishment of populations in other rivers and the
expansion of populations in rivers where it already occurs.
(6) Control the unwarrented take of this species.
Present recovery efforts involve studies to determine the impact
of chlorine, enforcement of regulations, and information/education
effort.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Stansbery, D.H. 1976. Status of endangered fluviatile mollusks in
central North America: Quadrula sparsa (Lea, 1841). Ohio St.
Univ. Res. Found. RF3712 Final No.1. 6 pp.
02 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the
Appalachian Monkeyface Pearly Mussel, Quadrula sparsa (Lea, 1841).
Agency Draft. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Asheville, NC.
51 pp.
03 Bogan, A.E. and P.W. Parmalee. 1983. Tennessee's rare wildlife
volume II: the mollusks. Tenn. Wildl. Resour. Agency, Tenn. Dep.
Conserv., and Tenn. Nat. Heritage Prog. 123 pp.
04 Lea, I. 1840. Descriptions of new freshwater and land shells.
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 1:284-289.
05 Parker, W. and L. Dixon. 1980. Endangered and threatened wildlife
of Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee. N.C.
Agric. Ext. Serv. 122 pp.
06 Fuller, S.L.H. 1974. Clams and mussels (Mollusca:Bivalvia).
Pages 215-273. IN: C.W. Hart and S.L. H. Fuller (eds.), Pollution
Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates. Academic Press, NY.
07 Ellis, M.M. 1936. Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic
environments. Ecology 17:29-42.
08 Ahlstedt, S.A. and S.R. Brown. 1980. The naiad fauna of the
Powell River in Virginia and Tennessee (Bivalvia:Unionacea). Bull.
Am. Malacol. Union 1979:40-43.
09 Kithchel, H.E., J.C. Widlad, and R.J. Neves. 1981. The impact of
coal-mining wastes on endangered mussel populations in the Powell
River, Lee County, Virginia. Final Rep., State Water Control
Board, Richmond, VA. 26 pp.
10 Ortmann, A.E. 1918. The nayades (freshwater mussels) of the upper
Tennessee drainage with notes on synonymy and distribution. Proc.
Am. Phil. Soc., Phila. 57:521-626.
11 Raleigh, R.F., D.H. Bennett, and L.O. Mohn. 1978. Changes in fish
stocks after major fish kills in the Clinch River near St. Paul,
VA. Am. Midl. Nat. 99:1-9.
12 Cairns, J., J.S. Crossman, K.L. Dickson, and E.E. Herricks. 1971.
The recovery of damaged streams. Assoc. Southeast. Biol. Bull.
18:79-106.
13 Bates, J.M. and S.D. Dennis. 1978. The mussel fauna of the Clinch
River, Tennessee and Virginia. Sterkiana 69-70:3-23.
14 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1979. Unpublished data. An
evaluation of mussel populations in the Clinch River, Tennessee and
Virginia. Div. Water Resour., Fish. Aquat. Ecol. Branch, Norris,
TN. 14 pp.
15 Neves, R.J., G.B. Pardue, E.F. Benfield, and S.D. Dennis. 1980.
An evaluation of endangered mollusks in Virginia. Final Rep., Va.
Comm. Game Inland Fish. Proj. No.E-F-1, Richmond, VA. 140 pp.
16 Fuller, S.L.H. and J.W. Richardson. 1977. Amensalistic
competition between Corbicula manilensis (Philippi), the Asiatic
clam (Corbiculidae), and fresh-water mussels (Unionidae) in the
Savannah River of Georgia and South Carolina (Mollusca:Bivalvia).
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species MUSSEL, PEARLY, MONKEYFACE, APPALACHIAN
Species Id ESIS404020
Date 13 MAR 96
Assoc. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 24:52 (abstract).
17 Neves, R.J. 1984. Personal observations. Va. Coop. Fish. Res.
Unit, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA.
18 Coker, R.E., A.F. Shira, H.W. Clark, and A.D. Howard. 1921.
Natural history and propagation of fresh-water mussels. Bull. U.S.
Bur. Fish. 37:77-81.
19 Churchill, E.P., Jr., and S.I. Lewis. 1924. Food and Feeding in
freshwater mussels. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 39:439-471.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
01 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Recovery Plan for the
Appalachian Monkeyface Pearly Mussel, Quadrula sparsa (Lea, 1841).
Agency Draft. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Asheville, NC.
51 pp.
02 Dennis, S.D. 1981. Mussel fauna of the Powell River, Tennessee
and Virginia. Sterkiana 71:1-7.
03 Ahlstedt, S.A. and S.R. Brown. 1980. The naiad fauna of the
Powell River in Virginia and Tennessee (Bivalvia:Unionacea). Bull.
Am. Malacol. Union 1979:40-43.
04 Neves, R.J., G.B. Pardue, E.F. Benfield, and S.D. Dennis. 1980.
An evaluation of endangered mollusks in Virginia. Final Rep., Va.
Comm. Game Inland Fish. Proj. No.E-F-1, Richmond, VA. 140 pp.
05 Neves, R.J. 1983. Unpublished data. Va. Coop. Fish. Res. Unit,
VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA.
06 Simpson, C.T. 1914. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naiades, or
Pearly Freshwater Mussels. Bryant Walker, Detroit, MI. 1540 pp.
07 Stansbery, D.H. 1976. Status of endangered fluviatile mollusks in
central North America: Quadrula sparsa (Lea, 1841). Ohio St.
Univ. Res. Found. RF3712 Final No.1. 6 pp.
08 Stansbery, D.H. 1973. A preliminary report on the naiad fauna of
the Clinch River in the southern Appalachian Mountains of Virginia
and Tennessee (Mollusca:Bivalvia: Unionidae). Bull. Am. Malacol.
Union 1972:20-22.
09 Bogan, A.E. and P.W. Parmalee. 1983. Tennessee's rare wildlife
volume II: the mollusks. Tenn. Wildl. Resour. Agency, Tenn. Dep.
Conserv., and Tenn. Nat. Heritage Prog. 123 pp.
References - 2