(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - 'AHINAHINA
OTHER COMMON NAMES - 'AHINAHINA; SILVERSWORD and MAUNA KEA; SILVERSWORD;HINAHINA
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Angiosperm
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - MAGNOLIOPHYTA,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - MAGNOLIOPSIDA,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - ASTERALES,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ASTERACEAE,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - ARGYROXIPHIUM,
SPECIES AND SSP - SANDWICENSE, SSP.
SCIENTIFIC NAME - ARGYROXIPHIUM SANDWICENSE SSP.
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES -
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
'Ahinahina (Mauna Kea silversword)
Argyroxiphium sandwicense ssp. sandwicense DC.
KINGDOM: Plant GROUP: Angiosperm
DIVISION: Magnoliophyta CLASS: Magnoliopsida
ORDER: Asterales FAMILY: Asteraceae
The Mauna Kea silversword is a basally woody herb producing a
globe shaped cluster of closely-spaced, spirally-arranged,
lance-shaped leaves. The globe-shaped rosette may become 2 ft (0.6 m)
or more in diameter with individual leaves up to 1 ft (0.3 m) long and
usually less than 1/2 in (1.3 cm) wide. The leaves are completely
covered with long silver hairs. The flowering stalk is narrow, but
may reach 7 ft (2.1 m) or more in height. It is comprised of
numerous, very sticky stalklets bearing flowering heads about 1 in
(2.5 cm) in diameter. Each head has about a dozen pinkish petal-like
ray flowers around its periphery. The fruits resemble those of a
sunflower, but are long and slender and are usually crowned with about
6 unequal scales less than 1/8 in (0.3 cm) in length (01).
This taxon was first collected by James Macrae, a Scottish
botanist who ascended Mauna Kea in 1825. After walking over 3 miles
of pulverized lava, Macrae noted that "the last mile was destitute of
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
vegetation except one plant of the Syginesia tribe, in growth much
like a Yucca, with sharp printed silver coloured leaves and green
upright spike of three or four feet producing pendulous branches with
brown flowers, truly superb, and almost worth the journey of coming
here to see it on purpose" (02). Specimens of these plants reached
A.P. De Candolle and in 1836 were described by him and named
Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC. (03).
Early in 1834, David Douglas ascended Mauna Kea and observed the
same species. The Douglas specimens reached W.J. Hooker who initially
gave them the name Argyrophyton douglasii Hook. (04), a nomen nudum
with reference to an unpublished plate. Before the plate was
published, Hooker became aware of De Candolle's earlier publication of
Argyroxiphium sandwicense for the same taxon, and used that name on
his plate and in the accompanying textual material in Icones Plantarum
(05).
The species was again collected on Mauna Kea by Charles Pickering
in 1841 as part of the U.S. South Pacific Exploring Expedition
(06,07). Pickering also collected a silversword on Haleakala, Maui,
which he considered the same taxon, but which Asa Gray later named
Argyroxiphium macrocephalum (06,08,09).
Both Pickering and Douglas observed silverswords on Mauna Kea and
Mauna Loa, Hawai'i, and considered them to be the same taxon (02,06).
It is likely that the plants observed on Mauna Loa belong to a
similar, but distinctive taxon that was not named until 1957. In that
year J. Rock and M. Neal named it Argyroxiphium sandwicense var.
kauense Rock & Neal (10); the same year O. & I. Degener elevated it to
specific status (11).
Argyroxiphium sandwicense also has been reported from Hualalai,
Hawai`i (12), but no specimens have been cited in the literature.
Also, there have been many attempts to reestablish populations of
silverswords on the island of Hawai'i using seed collected on
Haleakala, Maui (13,14). This has resulted in taxonomic chaos. It is
now generally accepted that the Mauna Kea silversword is limited to
about 110 individuals in the upper portion of the Wailuku River
drainage basin on Mauna Kea, 95 of which are nursery-raised plants
transplanted into the area. Additionally, another 50 or so nursery-
raised plants have been transplanted onto other sites on Mauna Kea
(15).
Argyroxiphium sandwicense was treated as a distinct species until
Hillebrand (12) combined it with A. macrocephalum, recognizing each
taxon at the varietal level. Keck (07) relegated A. macrocephalum to
synonymy under A. sandwicense, stating that the characters used to
separate the taxa were not reliable. Degener (16) originally
considered these taxa distinct at the species level, but then,
influenced by Keck's monograph, relegated A. macrocephalum to synonomy
under A. sandwicensis (17). More recently he reaffirmed his earlier
conviction that they should be considered separate species (14). In
his recent checklist, St. John (18) considered A. macrocephalum a
synonym of A. sandwicense.
The two subspecies of A. sandwicense are similar, however, recent
studies by A. Meyrat (19) have supported some of Gray's (08) early
observations that led him to treat the taxa as separate species. The
two taxa can be distinguished on the basis of several quantitative and
Taxonomy - 2 (DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
a few qualitative morphological characters. Because of these
differences and the geographical separation of these taxa, Meyrat (19)
proposed to formally recognize them at the subspecific level. Carr's
status report adopted the available taxonomic treatment that most
closely approximated that of Meyrat, and recognized them distinct at
the varietal level (01). Meyrat subsequently published the taxon at
the subspecific level (20), making that names available for use in the
Service's final rule (15). The above taxonomic history of the taxon
was extracted chiefly from Carr's status report (01).
The lectotype of A. sandwicense is in the Lindley collection at
the University of Cambridge (CGE); isolectotypes are at the
Conservatoire et Jardin Botaniques, Geneve (G) and at the Royal
Botanical Gardens, Kew (K). At least two line drawings of the Mauna
Kea silversword have been published (05,16); the origin of the plant
depicted by De Candolle (21) is unknown. Photographs are included in
Carr's unpublished status report on the taxon (01), in Hawaii's
Vanishing Flora (22), and landgraf's article on the Mauna Kea
silversword (23). Distribution maps accompany the Carr and Landgraf
articles (01,23).
Common names for this taxon include: hinahina, 'ahinahina,
silversword, and Mauna Kea silversword.
Taxonomy - 3 (DRAFT) - Status
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
STATUS
Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Ornamental
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
U.S. STATUSES AND LAWS:
The 'ahinahina (Mauna Kea silversword) (Argyroxiphium
sandwicense ssp. sandwicense) has been designated as Endangered
pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (50 CFR 17.12; P.L.
93-205, 87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1540), as amended. The
subspecies has this status wherever found including the State of
Hawaii.
This subspecies is protected by the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as
amended; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.) which makes it unlawful to possess
any wild plant (including roots, seeds, and other parts) within U.S.
territorial or special maritime jurisdiction (as defined in 18 U.S.C.
7); or to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or
purchase in interstate or foreign commerce any wild plant (including
roots, seeds, and other parts) taken, possessed, transported, or sold
in violation of any State law or regulation. It is also unlawful to
import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any
wild plant (including roots, seeds, and other parts) taken or
possessed in violation of any U.S. law, treaty, or regulation or in
violation of Indian tribal law.
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCIES:
USFWS -Responsible for the management/recovery, listing, and
law enforcement/protection of this species.
All Federal agencies have responsibility to ensure that any
action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or result in the
destruction or adverse modification of Critical Habitat (50 CFR 402),
and to utilize their authorities to carry out programs for the
conservation of the species.
STATE STATUSES AND LAWS:
STATE: Hawaii
DESIGNATED STATUS: Endangered
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY: State Department of Land and Nat. Res.
STATE STATUTE: Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Chapter 195D.
INTERNATIONAL STATUSES, TREATIES, AND AGREEMENTS:
None.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
ECONOMIC STATUSES:
From the scientific point of view, the Hawaiian silversword
alliance (including Dubautia and Wilkesia) constitutes what is
probably the most striking example of adaptive radiation in the plant
world, and is very important to those studying evolution. The Mauna
Kea silversword, although very similar to the Haleakala subspecies, is
intermediate between the Haleakala taxon and Argyroxiphium kauense in
many features and thus represents an important step in the
diversification of these species.
Tourism is extremely important to the economy of Hawai'i. Many
tourists visit the island of Maui to see Haleakala Crater and its
spectacular silversword. A similar potential exists on the island of
Hawai'i if the Mauna Kea silversword could be extended to its former
range and abundance.
The species is of horticultural and ornamental interest, and in
the past was threatened by the collection of seed for propagation or
of entire plants for ornamental purposes. However, these activities
are now believed to be minimal now.
75/07/01:40 FR 27823/27924 - Notice of review
76/06/16:41 FR 24523/24572 - Proposed rule
78/04/26:43 FR 17909/17916 - Summary of comments on proposed rule
79/12/10:44 FR 70796/70797 - Withdrawal of proposed rule
80/12/15:45 FR 82480/82569 - Notice of review update
85/03/06:50 FR 09092/09095 - Proposed rule - Endangered
85/09/27:50 FR 39526/39527 - Notice of Review
86/03/21:51 FR 09814/09820 - Final rule - Endangered
Status - 2 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL
LAND USE -
Mixed Rangeland
Bare Exposed Rock
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
The habitat of the Mauna Kea silversword is the upper alpine
slopes (8,500 - 12,00 ft or 2,590 - 3,658 m) of the massive volcanic
dome of Mauna Kea, which rises to 13,796 ft (4,205 m), higher than any
other point of land in the State. The volcanic dome is geologically
youthful and is, therefore, in an early stage of erosion so that
stream beds, especially at the higher elevations have formed only
rather shallow ravines. One of these, the Wailuku River drainage, is
the site of the only known extant natural population of the Mauna Kea
silversword. Rocks of various sizes, some very large, are conspicuous
topographic features of the site. Adjacent areas at comparable
elevations (ca 9,200 ft or 2,804 m) are similar or are covered with
smaller pebbles or a layer of fine pulverized lava instead. Much of
the upper part of the range of this taxon was glaciated during the
Pleistocene epoch until 10,000 - 20,000 years ago. The glaciated
areas were scraped bare of ash and cinder in places, often leaving
exposed, sometimes polished rock surfaces. The entire summit area is
pocked with a series of cinder cones up to several hundred feet in
height. Terminal glacial moraines occur on the flanks of the summit
area (01,30).
The Wailuku River population begins at the interface of three
soil types: (1) rHLD - Huikau extremely stony loamy sand, 12 to 20
percent slopes; (2) rLV - Lava flows, Aa; and (3) rVS - Very stony
land. The population extends up the Wailuku River ravine which from
this point divides segments of rLV and rVS soil types. In the Huikau
(rHLD) type, 3 percent to 15 percent of the surface is covered by
stones. There may be 30 to 40 inches (76 - 102 cm) of soil before
fragmented lava is reached. Of the soil types colonized by the Mauna
Kea silversword this is the deepest and most fertile, capable of
supporting trees of Sophora chrysophylla at the upper reaches, such as
at this site, and mixed forests at lower elevations. The rLV type
consists of barren 'a'a lava flows with practically no soil. The rVS
(very stony) type is characterized by very shallow soil, only 5 to 20
inches (13 - 51 cm) deep, and a high proportion of 'a'a outcrop.
Preserved plants found at Waikahalulu Gulch are also on this soil
type.
Kobayashi reported that regeneration in the Haleakala subspecies
of the silversword was highest in areas where a layer of cinders of
five cm (2 in) or less in diameter is overlaid with sandy soil (28).
This condition is found on cinder cones, and it is likely that they
would provide optimum conditions for regeneration of the Mauna Kea
silversword as well.
Other soil types that probably were colonized by the Mauna Kea
silversword in former times include: (1) rCL - Cinderland; (2) rHlD -
Huikau loamy sand, 12 to 20 percent slopes; and (3) rHlD2 - Huidau
loamy sand, 12 to 20 percent slopes, eroded. The rCL type is the
same as that on Haleakala which is heavily colonized by the Haleakala
silversword (01,31).
The Wailuku River silversword habitat experiences extreme diurnal
fluctuation of temperature, and the possibility of frost any day of
the year. It is an exposed area of extremely high insolation. The
Habitat Associations - 1 humidity is low, and the mean annual rainfall is less than 20 - 40
inches (51 - 102 cm) per year, coming chiefly during the winter
months, while there usually is an extreme drought during the summer
months; windy (01,32).
In the upper portion of the range that this taxon formerly
occupied there were no other plants. Toward the lower portion of its
former range the vegetation consisted of alpine scrub of low stature.
At the lowest elevations of its range, the Mauna Kea silversword
apparently extended into the upper limits of a Sophora woodland as it
presently does at the Wailuku River site. The Wailuku site is
transitional between Kuchler's Koa-Mamane Parkland (Acacia-
Deschampsia-Myoporum-Sophora) and Grassland, Microphyllous shrubland,
and Barren vegetation types. Other sites at higher elevations
previously occupied by the Mauna Kea silversword would be in the
latter category (perhaps better characterized as alpine desert, at
least at the upper elevations). Associated plant species at the
Wailuku site include Dubautia arborea, D. ciliolata, Geranium
cuneatum, Rubus hawaiiensis, Silene struthioloides, Sophora
chrysophylla, Styphelia tameiameiae, and Vaccinium reticulatum
(01,15).
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
AUTOTROPH
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Terrestrial Features: Bottomland
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G
G
G
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
LIFE HISTORY
HABIT:
Mauna Kea silversword ('Ahinahina) is an herb (01).
LIFE CYCLE:
Perennial (01). Monocarpic, flowers at about five to fifteen
years of age, and then dies. On the few branched individuals, each
branch flowers and dies; all branches may not flower the same year
(01,29,33).
TYPE OF REPRODUCTION:
Sexual (01).
REPRODUCTIVE PHENOLOGY:
Nothing is known about the reproductive phenology of the
silversword except that flowering occurs in the summer months and
fruit matures by late August (01).
SEX OR SPORE STATUS:
Monoclinous (01) and self-incompatible (01,29,33).
POLLINATION, SPORE AND SEED DISSEMINATION:
Pollen dissemination agents are insects; probably a species of
Nesoprosopis - probably N. volcanica and perhaps a species of
Tephritis (01). Seed dissemination agents are wind and water (01).
Vast numbers of pollinating insects in Hawai'i have been
eliminated or severely reduced in distribution by man's activities.
Certainly the reduction in the numbers of the Mauna Kea silversword
has resulted in a reduction of the insects such as Nesoprosopis,
Tephritis, Rhynchephestia, and Plagithmysus, that co-evolved with it
(26,34).
SEED BIOLOGY:
Little is known about the seed biology of the Mauna Kea
silversword because so few plants remain, and each flowers but once
and then dies. Meyrat determined that a blooming Mauna Kea
silversword produces an average of over 44,000 achenes, however the
seed set is low (19,33). Powell found a seed set of 3 percent in
samples collected from plants that flowered in 1983, and a seed set of
2 percent for those flowering in 1984 (33). In a study of the
Haleakala subspecies of silversword, the highest germination rate,
under optimal laboratory conditions was 27.7 percent (27). Sunada
reported a germination percentage of 20 percent for the Haleakala
subspecies and 6 percent of the Mauna Kea subspecies of silversword
(35). Low germination in the field is probably attributable to the
fact that the fruits have no specialized means of dispersal, can
survive only in a narrow temperature range, have low heat resistance,
and contain chemical inhibitions (01). There is evidence that
viability drops very rapidly with age beyond one year if the seeds are
stored at ordinary temperatures (01,15). There appears to be no
dormancy factor (01), and germination is independent of light
intensity (27).
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
POPULATION BIOLOGY:
The Mauna Kea silversword is a self-incompatible taxon that
likely has suffered a massive decline in cross-pollination potential.
The population size must be very near or perhaps even below the
critical size necessary for continued survival. An average of only
about one individual per year produces a fruit crop and the seed
mostly fall near the parent plant. Germination rate is very low, and
the seedlings and young plants that are accessible to feral animals
are eaten by them (01). In 1984, a census was taken of the plant. A
total of 131 plants were counted; these were in exclosures at Pu'u
La'au and Wailuku. Of the 131 individuals, all but 15 were believed
to be nursery-propagated plants which were out-planted in the
exclosures (15). Elizabeth Powell, a botany graduate student
studying the silversword, indicated that the plant is not
self-compatible and that the sibling incompatibility may prevent 50
percent of sibling matings from producing viable seed. She states
that closely spaced, synchronously blooming plants are required for
cross pollination. Since most the out-planted individuals are from
seed collected from three parents, the remaining populations are
small, and the plant is monocarpic, a greater number of individuals
must be propagated and new seed sources must be incorporated if the
outplanting program is to be successful and the plant is to be saved
from eventual extinction (15,29,33). The prognosis for recovery is
not good.
ECOLOGICAL/EDAPHIC FACTORS:
Kobayashi reported that regeneration in the Haleakala subspecies
of the silversword was highest in areas where a layer of cinders of
five cm (2 in) or less in diameter is overlaid with sandy soil (28).
This condition is found on cinder cones, and it is likely that they
would provide optimum conditions for regeneration of the Mauna Kea
silversword as well.
The habitat of the Mauna Kea silversword experiences extreme
diurnal fluctuations of temperature, and the possibility of frost any
day of the year. It is an exposed area of extremely high insolation.
The humidity is low, and the mean annual precipitation is less than
20 - 40 in (51 - 102 cm) per year, coming mostly during the winter
months, and much of it as snow. There normally is an extreme drought
during the summer months. Also the area is very windy. The
silversword has a narrow range of temperature tolerance, and this may
be one of the chief factors delimiting its natural range (01,27,32).
Today the known natural silversword population grows at the
interface of three soil types: (1) rHLD - Huikau extremely stony
loamy sand, 12 to 20 percent slopes; (2) rLV - Lava flows, 'A'a and
(3) rVS - Very stony land. The population extends up the Wailuku
River ravine which from this point divides segments of rLV and rVS
soil types. In the Huikau (rHLD) type, 3 to 15 percent of the surface
is covered by stones. There may be 30 to 40 in (76 -102 cm) of soil
before fragmented lava is reached. Of the soil types colonized by the
Mauna Kea silversword this is the deepest and most fertile. The rLV
type consists of barren 'a'a lava flows with practically no soil. The
rVS (very stony) type is characterized by very shallow soil, only 5 to
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
20 in (13 - 51 cm) deep, and a high proportion of 'a'a outcrop (31).
Powell believes that the Wailuku area is a last refuge for the
silversword, where the topography helped protect it from predation by
feral animals, and not ideal habitat (33). Other soil types that
probably were colonized by the Mauna Kea silversword in former times
include: (1) rCL - Cinderland; (2) rHlD - Huikau loamy sand, 12 to 20
percent slopes; and (3) rHlD2 - Huikau loamy sand, 12 to 20 percent
slopes, eroded. The rCL type is the same as that on Haleakala which
is heavily colonized by the Haleakala silversword (01,31).
TROPHIC STATUS:
Phototrophic (01).
CHARACTERISTIC DOMINANCE:
Component (01). At one time the Mauna Kea silversword grew above
the present vegetation line on Mauna Kea, and was the only species of
higher plants in that habitat (01).
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY:
In the upper portion of the range that this taxon formerly
occupied was above the present vegetation line on the mountain.
Toward the lower portion of its former range the vegetation consisted
of alpine scrub of low stature. At the lowest elevations of its
range the Mauna Kea silversword apparently extended into the upper
limits of a Sophora woodland as it presently does at the Wailuku River
site. The Wailuku site is transitional between Kuchler's Koa-Mamane
Parkland and Grassland, Microphyllous shrubland, and Barren vegetation
types. Other sites at higher elevations previously occupied by the
Mauna Kea silversword would be in the latter category and perhaps
better characterized as alpine desert, at east at the upper elevation.
Associated plant species of the Wailuku site include Dubautia
arborea, D. ciliolata, Geranium cuneatum, Rubus hawaiiensis, Silene
struthioloides, Sophora chrysophylla, Styphelia tameiameiae, and
Vaccinium reticulatum (01,15).
The vegetation on Mauna Kea has been badly damaged by feral
animals with feral cattle, sheep, and mouflon being the worst culprits
(24,33). The cattle and sheep were released by Vancouver in 1793, and
placed under Royal protection so that they would increase (36). By
1851 it was estimated that there were 3,000 feral sheep and 12,000
feral cattle on Mauna Kea. The fates of these two ungulates diverged.
Cattle ranching became a big industry between 1850 and 1886 on the
island of Hawai'i, but by 1921, feral cattle were out of favor as
forest despoilers, and competitors with domesticated cattle for
forage, and were eliminated on Mauna Kea by 1931 (33,37). On the
other hand, feral sheep, whose numbers had been kept in check by wild
dogs, increased in numbers after 1920 when the dogs were exterminated
by a poisoning program (36). By 1937, there were an estimated 10,000
sheep on Mauna Kea (38). Most of these animals were contained within
the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and Game Management Area which circles
the mountain from about the 7,000 to 8,000 foot (2,134 - 2,438 m)
contour to the summit. This area includes the probably historical
range of the silversword which is believed to be between 8,500 ft
(2,590 m) and 12,000 ft (3,658 m) in elevation, encircling the
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
mountain. Until 1981, sheep were managed and maintained as a game
animal for sport hunting. The average number of sheep during these
years fluctuated between 4,000 and 11,000 animals (39). In 1981, as a
result of the palila (Loxiodes bailleui) critical habitat suit, the
State Department of Land and Natural Resources was forced to eliminate
all feral sheep on Mauna Kea. Today, perhaps 60 hunter-shy sheep
remain (40). After the removal of the sheep, notable changes occurred
in the vegetation. Many of the native plant species began to
regenerate after the browsing and grazing pressures had been removed.
Mouflon sheep were introduced to Hawai'i as a game animal in 1954.
Today there are an estimated 500 mouflon on Mauna Kea and are
regulated by the State as a sports game animal. Mouflon are more
agile than feral sheep and can jump higher fences and negotiate steep-
walled gulches and cliff faces, and as such, are a greater threat to
the silversword than were the other feral ungulates (33). A recent
court decision has ordered the State also to remove the mouflon from
Mauna Kea. This probably will be accomplished by allowing unregulated
hunting on the mountain.
SPECIES INTERRELATIONSHIPS:
None.
OTHER LIFE HISTORY DESCRIPTORS:
None.
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Maintaining Sperm/Seed Banks
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Transplanting Wild Eggs/Wild Seeds
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Exotic Vertebrates
Beneficial Controlling/Removing Feral Animals
Adverse Collecting
Existing Collecting
Adverse Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Existing Inherent Reproductive Characteristics
Adverse Low Gene Pool
Existing Low Gene Pool
Adverse Parasites
Existing Parasites
Adverse Predation
Existing Predation
Adverse Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Existing Exotic/Feral/Introducted Species
Adverse Erosion
Existing Erosion
Adverse Grazing
Existing Grazing
Adverse Vegetation Composition Changes
Existing Vegetation Composition Changes
Adverse Forest Alteration
Existing Forest Alteration
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Historically, the Mauna Kea silversword was abundant on Mauna
Kea from about 8,500 ft (2,590 m) to 12,000 ft (3,658 m) in elevation
(15,25). The activity of feral animals (goats, mouflon, cattle,
sheep, pigs, and horses) which were introduced mostly in the late 18th
century has eliminated the silversword from the fragile upper zones of
its former range and has reduced the species throughout its range to
one known natural population of about 15 individuals (15). Feral
animal populations have vastly altered and degraded the vegetation of
Mauna Kea in general (24). Direct results of animal activity have
included mechanical damage of aerial and subterranean plant parts,
consumption of plant material, and dispersal of exotic plant species.
Secondary effects include wind and water erosion of the thin soil
mantle after it has been stripped of stabilizing vegetation (01,15).
The only known extant natural population of this plant has been
fenced by the State of Hawai'i, however the exclosure is too low to be
effective against the more recently introduced mouflon sheep, which
threaten the species' survival by grazing and browsing activities
(15).
The species is of horticultural and ornamental interest, and in
the past was threatened by the collection of seed for propagation or
of entire plants for ornamental purposes. However, these activities
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
are now believed to be minimal, and represent only a potential threat
to its existence (01,15). Propagation of the silversword is not easy
as production and germination of viable seed is low (26). Studies by
Siegel et al. (27), Kobayashi (28), and Powell (29) all indicate that
self-incompatibility, depressed inter-sibling fertility, a narrow
range of temperature tolerance, seed dormancy factors, a relatively
short seed life, and the soil moisture and other edaphic requirements
of the silversword species in Hawai'i result in a low rate of
regeneration.
The closely related Haleakala silversword is damaged by the
predacious larvae of insects such as Rhynchepestia rhabdotis and
Tephritis cratericola, which were found to have damaged a mean of 60
percent of the seeds produced. An insect thought to be the latter or
a similar species has been observed on the Mauna Kea silversword (01,
26). Since these are native insects which evolved with the
silversword, they may not be a threat to the plant, at least under
normal conditions.
The extremely small size of the remaining populations of the
species threatens its reproductive capacity and has resulted in a
reduced gene pool that may threaten its adaptive capacity. The
species grows as a rosette for between five and 15 years before
flowering. Its low reproductive potential has been severely affected
by reduction of the populations size. Very few individuals produce a
fruit crop in any given year. For two or more years no plants may
bloom, and in some years only four or five may bloom (01,15).
Concurrent with population decline in insect-pollinated species,
such as the silversword, is often a loss of evolved pollinator
species. The drastic alteration of the upper forest zone on Mauna Kea
in general (24) may have resulted in a parallel reduction of potential
pollinators (01,15).
UNAPPROVED PLAN:
A recovery plan for this species has not yet been initiated. No
target date has been set for its initiation.
The decline of vegetation on Mauna Kea has been almost wholly the
result of pressure from large herds of feral animals which in the past
were maintained and managed by the State for sport hunting. By court
order, nearly all of the feral sheep have been removed from the
mountain. The State has now been directed to remove the exotic
mouflon sheep.
The population of feral animals should not be allowed to
increase; nor should any other game animal be introduced on the
mountain. Since the plant is self-incompatible and sibling crosses
result in depressed germination, plants should be monitored and
artificial crosses made to maintain as much genetic diversity as
possible. All but about fifteen of the plants known on Mauna Kea are
nursery-raised out-plantings resulting from seeds collected from one
to three parents. Most of these off-spring can be identified because
most are multiple crowned plants. Care must be taken that they are
crossed only with wild plants. Seeds should be germinated in a
nursery and transplanted into the original habitat of the species.
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
Since the plant flowers but once and dies, the transplanted
populations must be large enough to assure several flowering
individuals in any reproductive season. The populations also should
be composed of individuals of differing pedigree. A search should be
made for other natural populations or individuals to add to the
nursery stock's genetic diversity. Seeds should be stored in a seed
bank.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
References
***** REFERENCES FOR ALL NARRATIVES EXCEPT N-OCCURRENCE *****
01 Carr, G.D. 1982. Status report on Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC.
var. sandsicense. Unpubl. rept. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Portland, OR. 43 pp.
02 Wilson, W.F. 1922. With Lord Byron at the Sandwich Islands in
1825. (Extracts from the diary of James Macrae).
03 De Candolle, A.P. 1836. Prodromus..., vol. 5. Paris: Truetel et
Wurtz.
04 Hooker, W.J. 1837. A brief memoir of the life of Mr. David
Douglas, with extracts from his letters. Comp. Bot. Mag. 2:79-182.
05 Hooker, W.J. 1837. Icon Plantarum Vol. 1, pt. 3, pl. 75.
06 Pickering, C. 1876. The geographical distribution of animals and
plants. Part II. Salem, MA: Naturalists' Agency.
07 Keck, D.D. 1936. The Hawaiian silverswords: systematics,
affinities and phytogeographic problems of the genus Argyroxiphium.
Occas. Pap. B.P. Bishop Mus. 11:1-38.
08 Gray, A. 1852. Proc. Amer. Acad. 2:160.
09 Gray, A. ined. Manuscript labelled: United States exploring
expedition under command of Charles Wilkes. Gray Herbarium
Archives, Harvard University.
10 Rock, J.F. and M.C. Neal. 1957. A new variety of silversword.
Occas. Pap. B.P. Bishop Mus. 22:31-33.
11 Degener, O. and I. Degener. 1957. Fl. Hawaiiensis, fam. 344.
Argyroxiphium kauense (Rock & Neal) Deg. & Deg. Publ. priv., 2 pp.
12 Hillebrand, W. 1888. Flora of the Hawaiian Islands. Heidelberg:
Carl Winter. 673 pp.
13 U.S. National Park Service. 1974. Silversword restoration project
proposal, 21 pp., plus appended letters of response.
14 Degener, O., et al. 1976. Argyroxiphium kauense, the Kau
silversword. Phytologia 33:173-177.
15 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Endangered and threatened
wildlife and plants; determination of endangered status for
Argyroxiphium sandwicense ssp. sandwicense ('Ahinahina or Mauna Kea
silversword). March 21, 1986. Fed. Reg. 51(55):9814-9820.
16 Degener, O. 1930. Ferns and flowering plants of Hawaii National
Park. Honolulu: Publ. by the author. 312 pp.
17 Degener, O. 1936. Fl. Hawaiiensis, fam. 344. Argyroxiphium
sandwicense DC. Publ. priv., 2 pp.
18 St. John, H. 1973. List and summary of the flowering plants in
the Hawaiian Islands. Pac. Trop. Bot. Gard. mem. 1. Lawai, Kauai,
Hawaii. 519 pp.
19 Meyrat, A. 1982. A morphometric analysis and taxonomic appraisal
of the Hawaiian silversword Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC.
(Asteraceae). M.S. Thesis in Botany, University of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
20 Meyrat, A., G.D. Carr, and C.W. Smith. 1983. A morphometric
analysis and taxonomic appraisal of the Hawaiian silversword
Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC. (Asteraceae). Pacific Sci. 37(3):
211-225.
21 De Candolle, A.P. 1838. Coll. mem IX, pl. 8. Treutel et Wurtz:
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
Paris.
22 Kimura, B.Y. and K.M. Nagata. 1980. Hawaii's vanishing flora.
The Oriental Publ. Co. Honolulu, HI. 88 pp.
23 Landgraf, L.K. 1973. Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa silverswords alive
and perpetuating. The Bull., Pac. Trop. Bot. Gard. 3(4):64-66 &
cover photo.
24 Warner, R.E. 1960. A forest dies in Mauna Kea. Pacific Discovery
13:6-14.
25 Carr, G.D., et al. 1982. Argyroxiphium: Manual of the flowering
plants of Hawai'i. B.P. Bishop Mus. Accepted.
26 Kobayashi, H.K. 1974. Preliminary investigations on insects
affecting the reproductive stage of the silversword (Argyroxiphium
sandwicense DC.) Compositae, Haleakala Crater, Maui, Hawaii.
Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 21:397-402.
27 Siegel, S.M., P. Carroll, C. Corn, and T. Speitel. 1970.
Experimental studies on the Hawaiian silverswords (Argyroxiphium
ssp.): some preliminary notes on germination. Bot. Gazette
131(4):277-280.
28 Kobayashi, H.K. 1973. Ecology of the silversword Argyroxiphium
sandwicense DC. (Compositae), Haleakala Crater, HI. Ph.D. Diss.,
Univ. of HI, Honolulu.
29 Powell, E. 1985. Information included in her written comments and
oral testimony during a public hearing, Hilo, 24 June 1985, on the
proposed rule to list the Mauna Kea silversword as an endangered
species.
30 MacDonald, G.A. and A.T. Abbott. 1970. Volcanoes in the sea.
Univ. Press of HI, Honolulu. 439 pp.
31 Sato, H.H., et al. 1973. Soil survey of the island of Hawaii,
State of Hawaii. U.S. Dept of Agric. Soil Conserv. Serv., Wash,
D.C. 115 pp. & 195 maps.
32 Taliaferro, W.J. 1959. Rainfall of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaii
Water Authority, Honolulu.
33 Powell, E. 1985. The Mauna Kea silversword: a species on the
brink of extinction. Hawn Bot. Soc. Newsletter. 24:44-57.
34 Gressitt, J.L. 1978. Evolution of the Hawaiian Cerambycid
beetles. Pacific Insects 18:137-167.
35 Sunada, K. 1985. Information included in his oral testimony
during a public hearing, Hilo, 24 June 1985, on the proposed rule
to list the Mauna Kea silversword as an endangered species.
36 Tomich, P.Q. 1969. Mammals in Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Special
Publ. 57. 238 pp.
37 Kramer, R.J. 1971. Hawaiian land mammals. Charles E. Tuttle Co.,
Tokyo. 347 pp.
38 Bryan, L.W. 1971. Letter to Mr. Ernest Pung, Service Forester,
regarding silverswords on Hawai'i. Sept. 22, 1971.
39 Griffin, J.G. 1976. Ecology of the feral sheep on Mauna Kea.
Final report. State of HI Dept. of Land and Nat. Res., Div. of
Fish and Game. 90 pp.
40 Walker, R. 1984. Pers. comm. to Elizabeth Powell. Volcano, HI.
***** REFERENCES FOR N-OCCURRENCE NARRATIVE ONLY *****
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species 'AHINAHINA
Species Id ESIS701045
Date 13 MAR 96
01 Carr, G.D., et al. 1982. Manual of the flowering plants of
Hawai'i. Bernice P. Bishop Museum.
02 Meyrat, A., G.D. Carr and C.W. Smith. 1983. A morphometric
analysis and taxonomic appraisal of the Hawaiian silversword
Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC. (Asteraceae). Pacific Sci.
37(3):211-225.
03 Carr, G.D. 1982. Status report on Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC.
var. sandwicense. Unpubl. rpt. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Portland, OR. 43 pp.
04 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Endangered and threatened
wildlife and plants; determination of endangered status for
Argyroxiphium sandwicense ('Ahinahina or Mauna Kea silversword).
March 21, 1986. Fed. Reg. 51(55):9815-9820.
References - 3