(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - menhaden, gulf
OTHER COMMON NAMES - pogy, sardine and large-scale menhaden
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - ,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Osteichthyes,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Clupeiformes,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Clupeidae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Brevoortia,
SPECIES AND SSP - patronus,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Brevoortia patronus
AUTHORITY - Goode
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 126
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Other common names....Pogy, sardine, large-scale menhaden.*126*
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Commercial
Existing, FMP exists
Commercial/consumption
Commercial/industrial
Commercial/bait
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 126 and 192
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Gulf menhaden support the largest single fishery (by weight) in the United
States, and their young are prey to many other species of sport or
commercial importance.*126*
The gulf menhaden fishery is conducted within the territorial sea and
offshore of five coastal states (Florida to Texas). All states voted in
favor of a cooperative management plan under the Gulf States Marine
Fisheries Commission in 1977. This plan was revised and adopted in
1983.*192*
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine OW0
Marine OW0 1
Marine OW0
Marine OW0 1
Marine OW0
Estuarine OW0
Estuarine OW0
Marine OW0
Lacustrine, littoral OW0 8
Marine OW0
Estuarine OW0 9
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 126
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
FILTERER
OMNIVORE
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 126
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Zooplankton Not Applicable
Larva See Comments; Food
Juvenile Detritus - Organic Not Applicable
Juvenile See Comments; Food
Adult Detritus - Organic Not Applicable
Adult See Comments; Food
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 126
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 126
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 126
REFERENCES FOR LARVAE FOOD - 126
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Gulf menhaden have two distinct feeding stages in their lifetime. Up to 30
to 33 mm TL, larvae have a slender body, large mouth and eyes, and
relatively short gill rakers, and feed as selective carnivores on individual
zooplankters. After transformation into juveniles and as adults, the body
is deeper, gill rakers "elongate and branch to form a basket-like seive,"
and they feed as omnivorous filterers of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
organic detritus. Gunter (1938) reported "large schools feeding near the
surface in Caminada Bay, Louisiana where they wheeled, turned and swerved
from side to side in perfect unison, all the while with mouths agape and
lower jaws thrust forward."*126*
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
After transformation into juveniles and as adults, the body is deeper, gill
rakers "elongate and branch to form a basket-like seive," and they feed as
omnivorous filterers of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and organic
detritus.*126*
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
(Please see C.FOOD.A)
COMMENTS ON LARVAE FOOD -
Up to 30 to 33 mm TL, larvae have a slender body, large mouth and eyes, and
relatively short gill rakers, and feed as selective carnivores on individual
zooplankters.*126*
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
G
LIM Dissolved Oxygen: Specified in Comments
G Turbidity: Unknown
G Relation to Substrate: Unattached - normally free living
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Organic debris
G Water Depth Preference: Specified in Comments
G Estuarine habitat zone: bay
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 126
REFERENCES FOR LIMITING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 126
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
Temperature:
Gulf menhaden have been taken in water from 5 degrees to 34.9
degrees C (41 degrees to 95 degrees F). Definitive data on thermal optima
within this range, upper, and particularly on lower lethal limits are
lacking. Avoidance of water temperatures above 30 degrees C (86 degrees F)
has been reported. Gunter and Christmas (1960) reported that fisheries
activities for Gulf menhaden in Mississippi Sound began in the spring as
water temperatures reached 23 degrees C (73 degrees F) and slowed in the
fall at approximatley this same temperature.*126*
Salinity:
While Gulf menhaden have been reported to occur in waters from fresh to
hypersaline (0 to 67 ppt), there may be somewhat narrower salinity ranges
with which various life stages are associated. Generally, gravid adults,
fertilized eggs, and early larvae were associated with the higher salinity
gulf and open bay waters. Postlarvae and juveniles appeared to tolerate a
wide range, but were most often associated with nearshore, low salinity
areas. Non-gravid or developing adults were associated with mid-range
salinities of the estuary. Tagatz and Wilkens (1973) reported that
juveniles entered freshwater, but never penetrated far (1.6 km or 1 mi)
beyond the interface with low salinity estuarine water. Simmons (1957)
reported that juveniles commonly occurred in waters from 20 to 60 ppt, but
also noted mass mortalities of Gulf menhaden at salinities over 80
ppt.*126*
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
Temperature and Salinity:
Perhaps the most complete compilation of combined temperature and salinity
data for Gulf menhadens is that of Christmas and Waller (1973) for
Mississippi Sound. While their matrix covered a wide range of temperatures
and salinities within those discussed above, it was apparent that
consistently high catches were resticted to waters over 20 degrees C (68
degrees F), particularly 25 degrees to 34.9 degrees C (77 degrees to 95
degrees F), between salinities of 5 to 25 ppt. The highest mean catch was
recorded at the 5 to 9.9 ppt X 30 degrees to 34.9 degrees C (86 degrees to
95 degrees F) cell of the matrix with a mean fish size of 57 mm TL.
Collection techniques in this study may have favored the taking of
young-of-the-year juveniles. It is possible than that the lower salinities
often associated with postlarval and very young Gulf menhaden were under
represented.*126*
Substrate and System Features:
Although Gulf menhaden inhabit the water column and no direct use of the
substrate is apparent, they are most often captured over soft bottoms.
Christmas (1981) incorporated substrate type as a parameter in his model of
habitat suitability for Gulf menhaden with the highest value assigned to
mud (vs. mud-sand or sand) substrates. He stated that "substrate is
included in the estimate of food value because the esturarine and nearshore
marine habitats are shallow; thus currents and wave action will resuspend
nutrients and organic detritus which have been incorporated into the
sediments....[It was also] assumed that muddy substrates, because of their
more dense [prey] populations and absorptive chemical properties, have a
higher food value than sandy substrates."*126*
Importance of Marsh:
Another feature of the Gulf menhaden habitat not mentioned in previous
sections is the importance of the surrounding marsh system. Results of a
study by Copeland and Bechtel (1974) indicated that menhaden were not
frequently found within marsh areas. However, they fully recognized the
importance of these areas by stating, "In order to maintain an environment
capable of supporting menhaden populations in estuaries, the tributaries,
fringes and tertiary bays must be protected from destruction
[and]...streamflow, which brings that freshwater required for low salinity
maintenance and necessary foodstuffs for the small menhaden, will have to
be maintained."*126*
Dissolved Oxygen:
Gulf menhaden are frequently among the species hardest hit by low dissolved
oxygen (DO) "fish kills" in estuarine waters. Post-larvae and juveniles in
restricted bays and backwaters are particularly susceptible to such kills
as their mobility and capacity to avoid low DO are limited. Christmas
(1981) suggested a minimum DO level of 3 ppm although the empirical basis
for this number was not given.*126*
Depth:
Available information on depth and water movement has largely been
incorporated into above discussions. Data presented by Roithmayr and
Waller (1963) on seasonal change in depth distribution of Gulf menhaden
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
generally reflect the annual inshore-offshore migration pattern. Fish were
taken from surface to bottom in 2 to 15 m (6 to 48 ft) from June through
September; up to 27 m (90 ft) in October and November; from 7 to 33 m (24
to 108 ft), but occasionally to 88 m (288 ft) from December through
February; and back to 2 to 26 m (6 to 84 ft), occasionally to 33 m (108
ft), from March through May.*126*
Environment Associations - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION:
D. 17-21; A. 20-23; P. 14-17; Sc. 36-50; Gr. 40-150. Scales large, in
irregular rows; opercular striae long and distinct; predorsal scales
enlarged as in other menhaden.*126*
Color in life: Body silvery, greenish on back, with dark humeral spot and
usually a series of smaller spots behind humeral one; caudal fin with dark
margin; other fins often yellowish.*126*
REPRODUCTION:
The actual spawning event in Gulf menhaden has not been observed.
Statements regarding the site and time of spawning are therefore based upon
the capture of eggs, larvae, or spent adults. Spawning is reported to occur
in open Gulf of Mexico waters from 2 to 128 m (6 to 420 ft) deep, but is
apparently concentrated in waters of less than 18 m or 60 ft. Spawning has
been reported from October through March, but is suspected to occur, at
least in some years, from September through May. Gulf menhaden may spawn up
to four or five times during a single spawning season, each time releasing
only that fraction of the developing ova which has matured. Separate
spawning peaks in late October and March have been suggested, but definitive
data are lacking.*126*
Eggs of the Gulf menhaden are spherical and float near the surface.
Although data on hatching in the Gulf menhaden were not found, the eggs of
Atlantic menhaden (B. tyrannus) are reported to hatch within 2 days (at 15
degrees C or 59 degrees F), with yolk sac absoprtion completed within 5
days.*126*
BEHAVIOR:
Emigration of adults and maturing juveniles from estuarine to open gulf
waters has been reported to occur over a wide time span from midsummer
through winter. Gulf menhaden were reported to have begun emigrating from
Tampa Bay, Florida, in June or July, from Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana, in
August, and from Pensacola Bay, Florida, by September. Peak gulfward
migration apparently occurs from October through January. Movement back into
inshore waters by surviving members of all age groups following an
overwintering and/or spawning season in open Gulf waters occurs early the
following spring, i.e., March to April. The redistribution of returning fish
is thought to be "by random movement, probably in search of high food
concentrations," with the net result being a movement back into the
food-rich waters of the estuaries. As Gulf menhaden live to age-III, this
cycle may be repeated some two to four times by an individual fish. The
described pattern of inshore-offshsore migration is the "normal" pattern,
but juveniles and adults have both been taken in inshore areas in all
months.*126*
Larvae may spend 3 to 5 weeeks in offshore waters before moving through the
passes into the estuaries at 9 to 25 mm SL. The reported timing of this
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
movement extends from September through May with a peak from December
through March. It is uncertain to what extent the movement into the
estuaries is an active or passive process. Researchers stated that
larval menhaden "require favorable currents to make their way into the
estuary." Researchers believe that larval movement is related
to water movement, but clearly suggest an active role. Researchers stated
that larvae avoid being swept out of the estuary in tidal currents by moving
to slower current areas near shore either by swimming, finding favorable
currents or both.*126*
Postlarvae have been reported in the estuaries from November through June
where they then disperse to shallow (0 to 2 m or 0 to 6.6 ft), quiet, low
salinity areas near shore. In the estuary, transformation from postlarval
to juvenile morphology occurs as the menhaden reach 30 to 33 mm TL.*126*
Juveniles. After transformation, juveniles remain in these low salinity,
nearshore areas where they travel about in dense schools, often near the
surface. This schooling behavior is retained throughout life. The
morphological changes associated with transformation are also accompanied by
a change in feeding behavior from selective, particulate-feeding carnivory
to filter-feeding omnivory.
The reported duration of the Gulf menhaden's juvenile stage and their stay
in the estuary is variable. Studies have shown that menhaden in the 0
age-class "are incapable of completing gametogenesis prior to the onset of
the ensuing spawning season ... [and] do not participate in the annual
migration to the spawning grounds in the offshore waters."*126*
LIMITING FACTORS:
Temperature. Gulf menhaden have been taken in waters from 5 degrees to 34.9
degrees C. Definitive data on thermal optima within this range, upper, and
particularly on lower lethal limits are lacking. Avoidance of water
temperature above 30 degrees C has been reported.*126*
Salinity. While Gulf menhaden have been reported to occur in waters from
fresh to hypersaline (0 to 67 ppt), there may be somewhat narrower salinity
ranges with which various life stages are associated. Generally, gravid
adults, fertilized eggs, and early larvae were associated with the higher
salinity gulf and open bay waters. Postlarvae and juveniles appeared to
tolerate a wide range, but were most often associated with nearshore, low
salinity areas. Non-gravid or developing adults were associated with mid-
range salinities of the estuary. Studies have shown that juveniles entered
freshwater, but never penetrated far (1.6 km or 1 mi) beyond the interface
with low salinity estuarine water. It's been reported that juveniles
commonly occurred in waters from 20 to 60 ppt, but also noted mass
mortalities of Gulf menhaden at salinities over 80 ppt.*126*
Substrate and System Features. Researchers of one study indicated that
menhaden were not frequently found within marsh areas. However, they fully
recognized the importance of these areas by stating, "In order to maintain
an environment capable of supporting menhaden populations in estuaries, the
tributaries, fringes and tertiary bays must be protected from destruction
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
[and]. . .streamflow, which brings the freshwater required for low salinity
maintenance and necessary foodstuffs for the small menhaden will have to be
maintained."*126*
Dissolved Oxygen. Gulf menhaden are frequently among the species hardest
hit by low dissolved oxygen (DO) "fish kills" in estuarine waters.
Postlarvae and juveniles in restricted bays and backwaters are particularly
susceptible to such kills as their mobility and capacity to avoid low DO are
limited. Researchers have suggested a minimum DO level of 3 ppm although
the empirical basis for this number was not given.*126*
POPULATION ATTRIBUTES:
The Fishery. The purse seine fishery for Gulf menhaden dates back to the
turn of the century, but only developed into a major industry after World
War II. The fishery for this single species today provides over one-quarter
of the Nation's commercial fishery landings by weight. In 1979 this fishery
ranked first in tonnage landed (779,390 mt-live wt) and seventh in value
($73,426,000, exvessel price) among commercially fished species in the
United States. Fishmeal and oil produced from menhaden are in high demand
for poultry feed, cosmetics, and margarine. Young menhaden are sometimes
used for bait by Mississippi fishermen.
The Gulf menhaden is a short-lived species, with age I and II fish
constituting the majority of the commercial catch. Fish as old as Age IV
are also occasionally taken. An overlap in predation upon the young
menhaden by both man and several species of sport fish, led one researcher
to comment that there "is considerable speculation that menhaden are being
overfished to the detriment of the sport fishery." Since this statement was
made in 1965, the commercial menhaden catch has increased considerably
while, for at least two menhaden predators, the spotted seatrout and red
drum, no clear evidence of a decreasing sport catch has been shown. No
studies, however, of trends in abundance of the entire predator assemblage
were found. As the menhaden fishery is a very "clean" fishery, there is
little direct destruction of other species as discarded by-catch.
Fisheries activities extend primarily from 1.6 to 4.8 km (1 to 3 mi)
offshore from Florida to eastern Texas and are therefore subject to State
rather than Federal regulation. The season runs from mid-April to October
when the fish are inshore and sexually inactive. Researchers concluded that
Gulf menhaden from Florida to the Yucatan constituted a single, widespread
stock. However, the results of tagging studies indicated more of a
localization of populations with little movement between fishing grounds
east and west of the Mississippi River Delta. Studies show that recruitment
of age I menhaden "is dependent on the number of juveniles produced in
estuaries in and adjacent to each fishing area." While this association of
separate stocks with nearby estuarine systems now seems to be accepted, the
relative importance of particular coastal sections as nursery areas is
uncertain.*126*
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Breeding/Spawning Season: October
Breeding/Spawning Season: November
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Breeding/Spawning Season: December
Breeding/Spawning Season: January
Breeding/Spawning Season: February
Breeding/Spawning Season: March
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 126
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Existing Regulating commercial harvest gear types
Existing Regulating harvest of species being described
Existing Regulating harvest - setting seasons
Beneficial Maintaining unique or special habitat features [wetlands, caves,
Beneficial Developing/maintaining suitable salinity
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 126
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 126
REFERENCES FOR EXISTING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 126 and 192
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Fisheries activities extend primarily from 1.6 to 4.8 km (1 to 3 mi)
offshore from Florida to eastern Texas and are therefore subject to State
rather than Federal regulation. The season runs from mid-April to October
when the fish are inshore and sexually inactive.*126*
The maintenance of large parcels of surrounding marsh and of inflowing
freshwater tributary systems is considered necessary to the maintenance of
an environment capable of supporting menhaden populations in estuaries.
In order to maintain an environment capable of supporting menhaden
populations in estuaries, the tributaries, fringes and tertiary bays must be
protected from destruction and streamflow, which brings the freshwater
required for low salinity maintenance and necessary foodstuffs for the small
menhaden, will have to be maintained.*126*
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species menhaden, gulf
Species Id M010026
Date 26 AUG 96
References
126* Lassuy, D. 1983. Species Profiles: Life Histories and
Environmental Requirements (Gulf of Mexico) -- Gulf Menhaden.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biol. Rep. 82(11.2) pp 13.
192 * Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission. 1988. The
Menhaden Fishery of the Gulf of Mexico United States: A Regional
Management Plan. (18)J.Y. Christmas, David J. Etzold, Larry B.
Simpson, Stephen Meyers (ed.). Gulf States Marine Fisheries
References - 1