(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - alewife
OTHER COMMON NAMES - alewife
ELEMENT CODE - 05/30/84
AOU CODE - 04/23/85
10/01/87
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata, Vertebrata
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Osteichthyes, Actinopterygii
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Clupeiformes, Clupeoidei
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Clupeidae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Alosa,
SPECIES AND SSP - pseudoharengus,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Alosa pseudoharengus
AUTHORITY - (Wilson) 1811
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 1368 and 816
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Often confused with other clupeids *1364*
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Unclassified
Sport Fish
Commercial
Commercial/industrial
Commercial/consumption
Commercial/bait
See Comments
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 3128
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Ecologically important as link between estuarine and marine food webs, and
between zooplankton and high level piscivores.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - 019, 033, 036, 041, 051, 053, 057, 059, 067, 071, 073, 083, 085, 087, 089, 095, 097, 099, 101, 117, 119, 127, 143, 149, 153, 155, 175, 181, 183, 193, 199, 550, 700, 800 and 810
References on County Abundance - 019, 033, 036, 041, 051, 053, 057, 059, 067, 071, 073, 083, 085, 087, 089, 095, 097, 099, 101, 117, 119, 127, 143, 149, 153, 155, 175, 181, 183, 193, 199, 550, 700, 800 and 810
REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 019, 033, 036, 041, 051, 053, 057, 059, 067, 071, 073, 083, 085, 087, 089, 095, 097, 099, 101, 117, 119, 127, 143, 149, 153, 155, 175, 181, 183, 193, 199, 550, 700, 800 and 810
REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - C
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - Aquatic
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 1365, 842 and 1359
LAND USE -
Water
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 842, 3128 and 1359
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, intertidal OW0 N 2
Estuarine, subtidal OW0 N 2
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0 H 0
Riverine SB4
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 1359, 246 and 136
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Anadromous, now landlocked in many lakes
*842,3128,1359*
HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
V1: riverine, estuarine: Dominant substrate type for river herring spawning:
1 = > or equal to 75% mud or silt or other soft material containing detritus
and vegetation, 2 = > or equal to 50% mud or silt, some sand and vegetation,
and 3 = > or equal to 75% sand or other hard material with no vegetation:
optimum = 1; V2: riverine, estuarine: Mean daily water temperature during
spawning season: minimum = 0 deg. C, maximum = 30 deg. C, optimum = 15-20 deg.
C; V3: riverine, estuarine: Mean number of zooplankton per liter: minimum = 0
/liter, maximum = 125/liter, optimum = 100/liter or greater; V4: riverine,
estuarine: Mean salinity during spring or summer: minimum = 0 ppt, maximum = 14
ppt, optimum = 5 ppt or less; V5: riverine, estuarine: Mean surface water
temperature: minimum = 0 deg. C, maximum = 40 deg. C, optimum = 15-20 deg. C
COMMENTS ON HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
Assumptions of the models: V1 - The type of substrate over which river
herring spawn most frequently is optimal; V2 - Quantitative information on
optimal spawning temperature for river herring is lacking; mean daily water
temperature during the spawning season of 15-20 deg. C are assumed to be
optimal; V3 - One hundred or more zooplankton per liter is an optimal food
resource for river herring; V4 - Low salinity levels are optimal for
juvenile river herring prior to fall migrations; V5 - Optimal temperatures
for juvenile river herring are those that result in optimum growth.
POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
065 Northern Cordgrass Prairie (Distichlis-Spartina)
094 Mixed Mesophytic Forest (Acer-Aesculus-Fagus-Lirioden
095 Appalachian Oak Forest (Quercus)
101 Oak - Hickory - Pine Forest (Quercus-Carya-Pinus)
103 Southern Floodplain Forest (Quercus-Nyssa-Taxodium)
Habitat Associations - 1 REFERENCES FOR PNV - 4205
ECOREGION -
Mixed mesophytic Forest: Low Mountains
Appalachian Oak forest: Plains with High Hills
Appalachian Oak Forest: Open Low Mountains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Plains with High Hills
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Flat Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains, slight rel
REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 4205
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Omnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 816, 788, 1362, 1366 and 136
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General See Comments; Food See Comments
General Bacillariophyceae Not Specified
General Crustaceans Egg/Fetus stage
General Copepods Not Specified
General Malacostraca Not Specified
General Osteichthyes Egg/Fetus stage
General Animals Not Specified
Important See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile Diptera Juvenile stage
General Insects Egg/Fetus stage
General Insects Adult stage
General Insects See Comments
General Osteichthyes See Comments
Important Crustaceans Egg/Fetus stage
Important Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Important Insects Adult stage
Important Osteichthyes Egg/Fetus stage
Important Osteichthyes Adult stage
Larva Crustaceans Not Specified
Larva Copepods Not Specified
Juvenile Oligochaetes Not Specified
Juvenile Crustaceans Egg/Fetus stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Not Specified
Juvenile Ostracods Not Specified
Juvenile Copepods Not Specified
Juvenile Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Juvenile Insects Not Specified
Juvenile Diptera Not Specified
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Copepods Not Specified
Adult Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Insects Not Specified
Adult Diptera Larva stage
Adult Osteichthyes Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Osteichthyes Larva stage
Adult Osteichthyes Juvenile stage
Adult Clupeiformes Larva stage
Adult Clupeiformes Juvenile stage
General Zooplankton Not Specified
General Copepods Not Specified
Larva Zooplankton Not Specified
Larva Branchiopods Not Specified
Larva Copepods Not Specified
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
Juvenile Osteichthyes Not Specified
Juvenile Osteichthyes Juvenile stage
Adult Osteichthyes Not Specified
Adult Osteichthyes Juvenile stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Juvenile Insects Adult stage
Adult Insects Adult stage
Juvenile Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Insects Egg/Fetus stage
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 788 and 136
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 816 and 788
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 1362, 1366 and 136
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 1362, 1366 and 136
REFERENCES FOR LARVAE FOOD - 136
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
9999S=plankton, main food class *816,788*
Alewife feed chiefly on zooplankton, particularly copepods *136*.
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
9999S=microcrustacea most abundant food *1362,1366*
Adults consume fish, crustacean, and insect eggs, as well as adult insects;
young fish may also constitute a portion of the diet when available *136*.
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
9999S=feeds principally on animal plankton *1362,1366*
Juveniles consume fish, crustacean, and insect eggs, as well as adult
insects; young fish may also constitute a portion of the diet when available
*136*.
COMMENTS ON LARVAE FOOD -
The larvae consume primarily zooplankton and relatively small cladocereans
and copepods *136*.
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
J Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
G
J Dissolved Oxygen: Specified in Comments
J Water pH: Between 5.0-6.5
J Water pH: Between 6.5-8.5
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Sand
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Organic debris
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Rooted aquatic vegetation
A Aquatic Vegetation [specified type]: Unknown
A Water Depth Preference: 100-200 ft.
A Water Depth Preference: 200-500 ft.
BA Water Temperature: Between 15-21 degrees C
BA Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
BA Water Temperature: Below 15 degrees C
BA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
E Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
E Water Temperature: Between 15-21 degrees C
E Water Temperature: Below 15 degrees C
E Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
BA Water Velocity [Instream Flow Group Increments]: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 246
REFERENCES FOR ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 246
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 136
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 246
REFERENCES FOR EGG ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 136
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
TEMPERATURE-Some juvenile alewives are recorded to have survived and feed
at temperatures of 34.4-35.0 degrees C. In a northern alewife population,
scientists have reported an upper incipient lethal temperature of 31-34
degrees for adults.*246*
Alewife herring on the open ocean were most frequently caught at 4-7
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
degrees C.*246*
SALINITY-Although little information exists on salinity tolerances of
alewives, they are apparently efficient osmoregulators in freshwater or
saltwater and are highly tolerant of salinity changes. Blood and muscle
electrolyte concentrations were similar in alewives held in seawater and in
freshwater at the same temperature. The existence of landlocked,
reproducing populations in lakes and reservoirs indicates that this
species does not require a saltwater environment to complete its life
cycle.*246*
Juvenile alewives in the Cape Fear River, North Carolina, were found in
areas with 4 to 22 ppm free carbon dioxide, 2.4-10.0 mg/L dissolved oxygen,
and a pH of 5.2 to 6.8.*246*
In pooled samples taken throughout the year, alewives on the open sea were
captured most often at 56-110 m depths.*246*
COMMENTS ON ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
TEMPERATURE- In a northern alewife population,
scientists have reported an upper incipient lethal temperature of 31-34
degrees for adults.*246*
Alewife herring on the open ocean were most frequently caught at 4-7
degrees C.*246*
SALINITY-Although little information exists on salinity tolerances of
alewives, they are apparently efficient osmoregulators in freshwater or
saltwater and are highly tolerant of salinity changes. Blood and muscle
electrolyte concentrations were similar in alewives held in seawater and in
freshwater at the same temperature. The existence of landlocked,
reproducing populations in lakes and reservoirs indicates that this
species does not require a saltwater environment to complete its life
cycle.*246*
In pooled samples taken throughout the year, alewives on the open sea were
captured most often at 56-110 m depths.*246*
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Alewife often spawn in slower-moving waters. Alwives ascend streams farther
than blueback herring. Alewives spawn at water temperatures from 12.0-22.5
degrees *136*.
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
TEMPERATURE-Some juvenile alewives are recorded to have survived and feed
at temperatures of 34.4-35.0 degrees C.*246*
Juvenile alewives in the Cape Fear River, North Carolina, were found in
areas with 4 to 22 ppm free carbon dioxide, 2.4-10.0 mg/L dissolved oxygen,
and a pH of 5.2 to 6.8.*246*
COMMENTS ON EGG ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Alewife eggs hatch at temperatures ranging from 12.7-26.7 degrees C *136*.
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
Environmental Conditions: Suspended sediments at concentrations of 100 ppm
or less had no significant effect on the hatch rate of alewife eggs *136*.
Environment Associations - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
ORIGIN: exotic *1361,1362,1365,1306,1360*; native
*1360,1361,1362,1365,1306*; REPRODUCTION: breeding season: spring (return to
coastal stream from the sea); landlocked breed from May to early August,
peaking in mid to late May; gestation/incubation period: hatch in 6 days at
15.5 deg. C; average number of offspring/reproductive period: highly
variable, fecundity rates may exceed 100,000 eggs/female--landlocked
specimens average 17,000-38,000 eggs/female; avg.no. of reproductive
periods/year: 1; age at sexual maturity: reached at about 20 mm and 3 or 4
yrs of age--landlocked specimens mature faster with majority of alewives at
age 1 (86%) sexually mature with no evidence of sexual differences in age or
size of first maturity; breeding behavior: strongly anadromous, ascending
freshwater streams in the spring to spawn in ponds; pairs aggregate and
produce millions of eggs that float to bottom in quiet waters; minimum and
maximum breeding ages: year class 3 and 4 compose the majority of anadromous
alewives; landlocked specimens will breed from age class 1-4, with ages 1 &
2 composing the majority of the reproduction *1310,1370,1371,2637*;
BEHAVIOR: a) territoriality: none; b) home range size: never studied, but
some specimens have been shown to return to natal streams to spawn; c) daily
and seasonal periodicity: enter fresh water in the spring to spawn; when
young reach a size of 1/2 inch in length, soon after hatching, they return
to the sea; landlocked specimens will remain in open water pelagic area
during the day and will move to littoral zone at night to feed
(spring-winter); during winter they remain offshore entirely; d)
dispersion/range: common from Nova Scotia to North Carolina, but known from
Labrador to Florida; became landlocked in northeastern waters (Great Lakes,
New York's Finger Lakes, ets.); in VA landlocked alewives found in Claytor
Lake, Flannagan Reservoir, Philpott Reservoir, Smith Mtn. Lake, and Lake
Chesdin *1370,1371*; e) migration and dispersal: found no documentation on
movements of ocean stocks except for their return to fresh water streams to
spawn; movements throughout the year were not found; landlocked specimens
emigrate readily as seen in their rapid expansion in the Great Lakes and
downstream of Claytor Lake; f) foraging strategy/sites: pelagic feeders; in
the ocean alewives feed mainly on plankton including small shrimp, and
crab-like forms and small fish; landlocked specimens fed in both the
littoral and limnetic zones; their diet's bulk consists of zooplankton
(principal taxa: cyclopoid copepod, Cyclops bicuspidatus; the calanoid
copepod, Diaptomen reizhardi, and the cladocerans Diaphanosoma
leuchtenbergianum, Daphnia retrocurva, Leptodora kindtii and Bosmina
longirostris) with smaller amounts of aquatic insects, largely mayfly,
chaoborid, and chironomid larvae, and fish larvae; the insect larvae were
probably consumed while migrating through the water column, since alewives
have difficulty feeding at or near the bottom *1310,1371*; g) spawning site:
for anadromous specimens, slower water with a sand or gravel bottom is best
(note: eggs are strongly adherent; they float to the bottom and stick to the
substrate); studies of landlocked alewives have shown that these fish will
indiscriminately spawn in littoral (< 5m) areas with little attached
vegetation with a sand or gravel bottom; h) development of young: eggs hatch
in about 6 days; food habits of young of year alewives are similar to that
of the adults except fish were absent (see foraging strategy/sites above);
in streams, when young reach 1/2 inch they move to the ocean; parental care
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
of young is absent *1310,1370,1371*;
SPECIES ORIGIN: a) native in salt water
and associated spawning streams; b) stocked in Claytor Lake, Flannagan
Reservoir, Philpott Reservoir, Smith Mountain Lake, and Lake Chesdin *1370*;
POPULATION PARAMETERS: a) relative trend: in landlocked populations, great
fluctuations occur; because they are extremely prolific they can withstand
heavy predation; b) mortality rates are variable; c) survival rates are
variable for landlocked specimens, high summer temperatures can cause
massive die-offs; d) sex ratio is approximately 1:1; e) rate of increase is
variable; f) turnover rates are variable; year class range from 1-5 in ocean
environments and 1-4 in landlocked system *1310,1370,1371*;
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: back dark gray-green; sides, belly light silver
grayish green with faint horizontal stripes; a dark spot is usually present
directly behind the gills, in line with the eyes; reaches a length of 15
inches (commonly less than 12 inches) and a weight of 14 ounces; landlocked
specimens tend to be more slender and larger headed and have an emaciated
look; range from 100-190 mm *1310,1370,1371,2637*;
SPAWNING: Alewife often spawn in slower-moving waters. Alwives ascend
streams farther than blueback herring. Alewives spawn from early April
through mid-May. Alewives spawn at water temperatures from 12.0-22.5 degrees
C. Alewife eggs hatch at temperatures ranging from 12.7-26.7 degrees C
*136*.
Environmental Conditions: Suspended sediments at concentrations of 100 ppm
or less had no significant effect on the hatch rate of alewife eggs *136*.
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Hybrid
Reintroduced Native
Stocked
Breeding Spawning Season: April
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
COMMENTS ON LIFE HISTORY -
Eggs are adhesive, stick to the bottom or on debris *1367*; spawn in quiet
stretches of stream or in lakes; no preferred type of bottom
*1336,1366,1367,1359*
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 1360, 1361, 1362, 1365, 1306, 1246, 1310, 1370, 1371, 2637, 1373 and 136
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Adverse Creating impoundments
Adverse Other management practices [specified in comments]
Existing Other management practices [specified in comments]
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 1362 and 1367
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 1362 and 1367
REFERENCES FOR EXISTING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 1362 and 1367
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
999(E)=supports a large commercial fishery for human food and
fish bait, runs may be established by stocking adults and removing
barriers to runs *1362,1367*; 999(A)=industrial pollution, siltation
*1362,1367*
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
References
136 * Chesapeake Bay Program. 1988. Habitat Requirements for
Chesapeake Bay Living Resources. Chesapeake Executive
Council pp 86.
788* Carlander, K.D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery
biology. Life history data on freshwater fishes of the United
States and Canada, exclusive of the Perciformes. I. Iowa State
Univ. Ames.
816* Lee, D.S., Gilbert, C.R., Hocutt, C.H., McAllister, R.E.,
Stauffer, J.R., Jr. (ed.)1980. Atlas of North American
freshwater fishes. Pub. 1980-12 of N. Car. Biol. Surv, N. C.
State Mus. of Nat. Hist. Raleigh.
842* Scott, W.B., Crossman, E.J. 1973. Freshwater fishes of
Canada. Can. Fish. Res. Board Bull. 184.
1246* Robins, C. R., Bailey, R.M., Bond, C.E., Brooker, J.R.,
Lachner, E.A., Lea, R.N., Scott, W.B. 1980. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada.
Am. Fish. Soc., Spec. Publ. No 12. Am. Fish. Soc. Bethesda, Md.
1306* Trautman, M.B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ.
Press Columbus.
1310* Smith, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Illinois. Univ. Ill.
Press Urbana.
1359* Bigelow, H.B., Schroeder, W.C. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of
Maine. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish Bull. 53:1-577.
1360* Dymond, J.R. 1932. Records of the alewife and steelhead
(rainbow) trout from Lake Erie. Copeia 1932(1):32.
1361* Graham, J.J. 1956. Observations on the alewife, Pomolobus
pseudoharengus (Wilson), in fresh water. Publ. Ontario Fish.
Res. Lab. No. 74. Univ. Toronto Bio. Ser. 62 Toronto, Ontario.
1362* Hildebrand, S.F., Schroeder, W.C. 1928. Fishes of
Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 43 (1927) Pt. 1.
1365* Miller, R.R. 1957. Origin and dispersal of the alewife,
Alosa pseudoharengus, and the gizzard shad, Dorosoma cepedianum
in the Great Lakes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 86:97-111.
1366* O'Dell, T.T. 1934. The life history and ecological
relationships of the alewife (Pomolobus pseudoharengus Wilson)
in Seneca Lake, New York. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 64:118-126.
1367* Rounsefell, G.A., Stringer, L.D. 1945. Restoration and
management of the New England alewife fisheries with special
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species alewife
Species Id M010038
Date 27 AUG 96
reference to Maine. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 73:394-424.
1368* Wilson. 1811. unknown. Ree's New Cyclopedia 9.
1370* Ney, J.J., Kohler, C.C., Nigro, A.A. 1982. Landlocked
alewife in Claytor Lake, Virginia: Evaluation as a forage
species for inland waters. Div. Fish. and Wildl. Sci., Virginia
Tech Blacksburg.
1371* Perlmutter, A. 1961. Guide to marine fishes. New York
Univ. Press.
1373* Zagler, K.F., Bardach, R.R., Miller, R.R., Passino, D.R.M.
1977. Ichthyology, 2nd Ed.. John Wiley and Sons New York.
2637* Ursin, M.J. 1972. A guide to fishes of the temperate
Atlantic coast. E.P. Dutton New York.
3128* Smith, S.H. 1968. The alewife. Limnos 1(2).
4205* Jenkins, R.E. 1984. Fishes of Virginia (tentative)..(publication
pending)
References - 2