(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - menhaden, Atlantic
OTHER COMMON NAMES - pogy, mossbunker, bunker, fat-back, bugmouth and shad
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Osteichthyes,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Clupeiformes,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Clupeidae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Brevoortia,
SPECIES AND SSP - tyrannus,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Brevoortia tyrannus
AUTHORITY - Latrobe
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 1229
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Other common names include pogy, mossbunker, bunker, fat-back, shad,
bug-mouth *59*
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Existing, FMP exists
Commercial
Commercial/industrial
See Comments
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 4027 and 59
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Menhaden fishery is one of the oldest and largest in North
America and is responsible for the majority of volume of Virginia's
annual commercial harvest *4027*. It was first established in the late
1600's or early 1700's to obtain fish for agricultural fertilizer. In the
early 1800's, an industry was first developed to obtain oil from menhaden,
and with increased use of oil products, there were 90 reduction plants in
North Carolina alone by 1869. Today this species contributes 25% to 40% of
landings in the largest commercial fishery (by weight, Brevoortia species)
in the United States. Annual landings for 1979 through 1981 averaged about
400,000 metric tons and $38 million in market value. Plants that process
menhaden products currently operate from Maine to Florida. Ninety-six
percent to 98% of the catch is sold to fertilizer, livestock, and cosmetic
interests as fishmeal, soluble proteins, and oils; the remainder is used in
pet food products and as fish bait *59*.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - Aquatic
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 1383
LAND USE -
Water
Bays and Estuaries
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 1383 and 1362
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, subtidal EM.
Estuarine
Riverine
Marine, intertidal
Estuarine, intertidal
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 4003, 4004, 4005, 4007 and 4025
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Adults: near surface waters, usually in shallow areas
overlying continental shelf, in greatest abundance immediately adjacent
to major estuaries *4003,4004*; some overwintering occurs in tributaries
of Chesapeake Bay *4005*; found in greatest abundance within 24 km of
coastline *4006*; Juveniles: generally pelagic, with smallest size
groups farthest up river *4005*; as much as 56 km upstream from brackish
water in Rappahannock River *4007*; Larvae: entering estuarine waters at
ca 10 mm and larger *4004*; in estuaries, primarily downriver between
fresh and brackish water *4007*
ANIMAL/PLANT SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Isopods: Lironeca ovalis
Olencira praegustaton
Copepod: Lernaeenicus radiatus
REFERENCES FOR SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS - 4000
COMMENTS ON SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Parasites *4000*
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Filter Feeder
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 3996 and 136
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Microorganisms Not Applicable
General Cyanophyta Not Applicable
General Plants Not Applicable
General Chrysophyta Not Applicable
General Bacillariophyceae Not Applicable
General Animals Larva stage
General Animals Adult stage
General Crustaceans Larva stage
General Copepods Adult stage
General Malacostraca Larva stage
General Detritus Not Applicable
General See Comments; Food See Comments
Larva Animals Larva stage
Larva Animals Adult stage
Larva Crustaceans Larva stage
Larva Crustaceans Adult stage
Larva Copepods Adult stage
Larva Malacostraca Larva stage
Larva See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile Microorganisms Not Applicable
Juvenile Cyanophyta Not Applicable
Juvenile Plants Not Applicable
Juvenile Chrysophyta Not Applicable
Juvenile Bacillariophyceae Not Applicable
Juvenile Detritus Not Applicable
Juvenile Animals Larva stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Larva stage
Juvenile Malacostraca Larva stage
Juvenile See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Microorganisms Not Applicable
Adult Cyanophyta Not Applicable
Adult Plants Not Applicable
Adult Chrysophyta Not Applicable
Adult Bacillariophyceae Not Applicable
Adult Animals Larva stage
Adult Malacostraca Larva stage
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
General Phytoplankton Not Specified
General Zooplankton Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 3996, 4002, 3999, 3997 and 136
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 3996, 4002 and 3998
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 4002, 3999, 3997 and 3998
REFERENCES FOR LARVAE FOOD - 3998
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Pelagic filter feeder *3996*; forages on phytoplankton,
zooplankton, benthic algae, and detritus *4002*
Menhaden represent a major energy link between plankton directly to the
large piscivores. Where menhaden are present in dense schools, their
filter-feeding can be a primary control over local plankton abundance. The
summer diet of menhaden in the mesohaline part of Chesapeake Bay consists of
zooplankton, phytoplankton, and unspecified organic particulates *136*.
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
Chiefly phytoplankton *3996,3997*
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
Chiefly phytoplankton *3998*
COMMENTS ON LARVAE FOOD -
Feed almost entirely on zooplankton; prefer copepods
*3998*
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
G Water Temperature: Between 15-21 degrees C
G Water Temperature: Below 15 degrees C
G Water Depth Preference: Specified in Comments
G Flow: Rivers [greater than 5000 cfs mean annual low]
FL Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
FA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
BA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4007 and 4008
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4004, 4009 and 4010
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 1383, 4004 and 4012
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4011 and 4013
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4004 and 4008
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
00220S=salinity range 1-36 ppt *4009*; 00290S=adults near
surface waters in shallow areas overlying continental shelf
*4003,4004*
Salinity affects temperature tolerance, activity, metabolism, and
growth. The interactive nature of environmental factors must be considered
when defining the healthy ranges of an organism.*59*
COMMENTS ON FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONTAL ASSOC_ -
00020S=prefer 15-21 degrees C. *4004*; avoid
temperatures above 26 degrees C. *4010*; 00220S=salinity range 1-36 ppt
*4009*
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Chiefly at sea *1383*; 00020S=4.4-26.6 degrees C.
*4012*; 00220S=minimum salinity 10 ppt *4004*
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
00020S=mortality at temperatures above 34 degrees C. and
below 6 degrees C. *4011*; 00220S=at 40-50 mm, generally within 0-15 ppt
*4013*
COMMENTS ON FEEDING LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
00020S=early larvae usually range 0-25 degrees C., most
between 15.8-18.5 degrees C. *4008*; 00220S=early larvae at minimum 18
ppt *4004*
Many studies have noted an affinity of young menhaden for low salinity
waters.*59*
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
ORIGIN: native *1383*;
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: body deep and compressed; mouth large with lower jaw
fitting into notch in upper, adipose eyelids give fish a sleepy look; bluish on
back with silvery sides that may have a reddish or brassy tint; fins pale yellow
edged in black; also possesses a dark spot on shoulder, usually followed by
2 or 3 rows of smaller spots *182*.
Morphology: Dorsal fin rays 18-24 (15-18 branched); anal fin rays 18-24
(16-21 branched); caudal fin rays 7-9+10+9+6-7; pectoral fin rays 13-19
(15-17); pelvic pin rays 7; lateral scale rows 40-58 (43-53); predorsal
scales 33-46 (35-44); modified scales anterior to dorsal fin 31-43; ventral
scutes 28-37 (31-34); vertebrae 44-50 (46-48); gill rakers on lower limb of
first arch 150-160 at 330-360 mm; outer row of gill filaments on
ceratobranchial arch 51-66 (53-64); pseudobranchiae 28-38 at 220 mm;
opercular striations 12-33 (14-27); proportions as percent of SL: body
depth 29.9-40.0; head depth 24.6-29.7, head length 28.8-36.0, eye
diameter ca. 5.0-8.0; mandible length 15.0-19.0; upper jaw length
12.8-16.0; caudal peduncle depth 8.2-10.1; body elongate, compressed;
head scaleless; maxillary scarcely reaching posterior margin of eye or
continuing beyond; snout blunt with prominent median notch, tip of lower
jaw projects beyond upper; cheek deeper than long; upper section of
opercle with prominent radiating ridges; scales adherent, exposed parts
deeper than long, posterior margins nearly vertical and strongly
fimbricated, pectinations painted; row of modified scales on each side
of midline of back in front of dorsal fin; low sheath of scales at base
of anal and dorsal fins; dorsal fin small, elevated anteriorly, margin
concave, inserted midway between snout and caudal base; origin of anal
fin under or behind tip of last dorsal ray; pectoral slightly falcate,
inserted low on body in advance of opercular margin; lower lobe of
caudal slightly longer than upper; pigmentation: blue, green, blue-gray,
or blue-brown above; venter and fins silvery with yellow or brassy
luster; anal fin with melanin; dark round or vertically elongate
shoulder spots usually followed by number of smaller spots arranged in
indefinite horizontal rows; peritoneum black; maximum length: reported
500 mm, but sizes above 470 mm not authenticated *1383*;
REPRODUCTION: spawn chiefly at sea, closer to shore in northern parts of
range *1383*; eggs have been reported from lower Chesapeake Bay, and
Patuxent River north to Benedict *4014,4015*; adults considered as one, two,
or possibly four spawning races or populations *4012,4016,4017*; spawn
every month in some parts of range *4018,4019,4004*; with fall and
spring peaks occurring in Chesapeake Bay region *4020*; water
temperature ranges 4.4-23.6 degrees C. with peak activity at 15-18
degrees C. *4012,4021*; salinity minimum 10 ppt, usually greater than 25
ppt *4004,4014*; fecundity 38,000-631,000 eggs per season *4019*; eggs
are buoyant, transparent, with diameter 1.3-1.95 mm *1359,4022,4023*;
incubation 42-54 hours at 15-20 degrees C. *4024*; age and size at
maturity is few at 1 (180-280 mm), ca. 80% at age 2 (195-320 mm), all at
age 3 (over 200 mm) *4019*;
BEHAVIOR: movement: larvae probably spend one month in water over continental
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
shelf, entering estuarine waters at ca. 10 mm and larger *4026*; movement
occurs in upper Chesapeake Bay tributaries from late May to late June and in
November *4014*; juveniles are generally pelagic with smallest size groups
farthest up river *4005*; occur in Potomac River in March and April, and in upper
Chesapeake Bay tributaries from late May to late June and in November
*4014,2199*; migrate to sea after first summer, generally late August in
northern estuaries and as late as January in southern waters *4005*;
juveniles may overwinter in all major estuaries from Chesapeake Bay to
Florida *4004*; those leaving estuaries migrate south in fall *4017*;
adults inhabit near surface waters, usually in shallow areas overlying
continental shelf *4003,4004*; spring and fall migrations coincide with
seasonal shifts in the 10 degree C. isothern *4004*; northern migrations
of older and larger individuals precede movements of younger and
smaller; those from Chesapeake Bay and north migrate northward
throughout summer; southern movement north of Cape Cod begins in
September; by November, all fish north of Chesapeake Bay are moving
southward; major portion of population overwinters in offshore waters
south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina *4006*; some adults overwinter in
tributaries of Chesapeake Bay *4005*; from June to October, population
stratified by age and size along entire coast with average age and
length increasing from south to north *4006*; foraging: filter feeders;
late stage juveniles and juveniles disperse while feeding, then
reassemble in tight schools when food supply is exhausted *3998*;
POPULATION PARAMETERS: annual survival rate (1966-1968) averaged 0.23;
instantaneous natural mortality is 0.52 *4017*;
OTHER AQUATIC/TERRESTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS: predators include whales, dolphins,
and sharks which follow schools of menhaden *2552*
Diseases:
Ulcerative mycosis (UM) is a skin disease primarily affecting Atlantic
menhaden that was first recognized as a serious disease problem in 1984.
Since then, UM has continued to cause repeated outbreaks along the eastern
seaboard of the United States that in some instances has resulted in up to
90% infection rates in randomly sampled populations of Atlantic
menhaden.*103*
SPAWNING AND RANGE: Juvenile menhaden are found in upper Chesapeake Bay
tributaries from late May through November. Juveniles were found in the
Potomac River in March and April and in the upper Bay from late May through
late June and in November. April through October is generally the peak time
of abundance in the upper Chesapeake Bay. During the post-larval stage,
menhaden tend to accumulate at the fresh/saltwater interface in the upper
Bay region. Juveniles in the upper Bay begin to emigrate, generally after
their first summer, from the freshwater interface into the mesohaline zone.
Larger fish are found in the deeper waters down the Bay. Sub-adults leave
the estuary with the adults in October; however, some overwintering occurs
in Chesapeake Bay. Spawning and early larval development occur in
continental shelf waters of the Atlantic. Menhaden are estuarine dependent,
utilizing the estuary both as a nursery for juveniles and as adult feeding
ground during the summer months. Eggs and small larvae have been observed in
Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, and Chesapeake Bay, but it is suggested
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
that spawning in these areas made minor contributions to total population
numbers *136*.
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Hybrid
Reintroduced Native
Stocked
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 1383, 4012, 4014, 4015, 4016, 4017, 4018, 4019, 4004, 4020, 4021, 1359, 4022, 4023, 4024, 4026, 4005, 2199, 4003, 4006, 3998, 2552, 59 and 136
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Existing Regulating harvest - setting seasons
Existing Other management practices [specified in comments]
Beneficial
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 59
REFERENCES FOR EXISTING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 4027 and 59
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Commercial harvest May through November; taken primarily with
purse seines *4027*. It has been stressed that the maintenance of a healthy stock of spawning-age
fish (III to VI) should be a primary concern of management efforts. Good
stocks of spawning-age fish would bring multiple benefits including higher
reproductive potential (decreasing the impact of years with poor recruitment
conditions), decreased vulnerability to weak year classes, and increased
weights of landings due to a higher contribution of older fish to the catch
*59*.
Menhaden are dependent on maintenance of a healthy estuarine environment.
Increased development activity in most coastal areas is putting additional
pressure on permit review agencies to relax standards. Any retreat from
strong commitment for habitat quality will have negative effects on the
stock.*171*
More than 50% of the annual landings of Atlantic menhaden are from within
State territorial waters, mostly from the Chesapeake Bay area. This fact,
combined with the migratory nature of the species and the dependence of
northern fisheries on escapement of age I and II fish from fisheries in the
South Atlantic Bight and Chesapeake Bay, makes regulation a compromise
situation between the industry and Federal and State agencies.*59*
Since 1981 a number of areas have been closed to menhaden purse seine
fishing along the Atlantic Coast. These closures were not recommended by
the AMAC or the AMMB.*103*
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
References
136 * Chesapeake Bay Program. 1988. Habitat Requirements for
Chesapeake Bay Living Resources. Chesapeake Executive
Council pp 86.
1229* Jones, P. W., Martin, F. D., Hardy, Jr. J. D. 1978.
Development of fishes of the mid-Atlantic Bight. Vol. 1. U. S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv. Washington, D. C:366.
1359* Bigelow, H.B., Schroeder, W.C. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of
Maine. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish Bull. 53:1-577.
1362* Hildebrand, S.F., Schroeder, W.C. 1928. Fishes of
Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 43 (1927) Pt. 1:366.
1383* Hildebrand, S.F. 1963. FISHES OF THE WESTERN NORTH
ATLANTIC. 1(3). Sear Found. Mar. Res., Mem.
2199* Lipson, A.J., Moran, R.L. 1974. MANUAL FOR IDENTIFICATION
OF EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF FISHES OF THE POTOMAC RIVER
ESTUARY. POWER PLANT SITING PROGRAM OF THE MARYLAND DEPARTMENT
OF NATURAL RESOURCES. (PPSP-MP-13). Md. Dep. Nat. Resour.
Md:282.
2552* Jordon, D., Evermann, B. 1903. AMERICAN FOOD AND GAME
FISH. Doubleday New York:572.
3996* Peck, J.I. 1893. On the food of menhaden. Bull. U.S. Fish.
Comm. 13:113-126.
3997* Darnell, R.M. 1958. Food habits of fishes and larger
invertebrates of Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana, and estuarine
community. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 5:353-416.
3998* June, F.C., Carlson, F.T. 1971. Food of young Atlantic
menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, in relation to metamorphosis.
Fish. Bull. U.S. 68:493-512.
3999* Richards, S. 1963. The demersal fish population of Long
Island Sound. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 18:5-101.
4000* Lindsay, J.A., Moran, R.L. 1976. Relationships of
parasitic isopods Lironeca ovalis and Olencira praegustator to
marine fish hosts in Delaware Bay. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
105(2):327-332.
4002* Peters, D.S., Schaaf, W.E. 1981. Food requirements and
sources for juvenile Atlantic menhaden. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
110(3):317-327.
4003* June, F.C. 1961. The menhaden fishery of the United
States. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv., Fish. Leafl. (521):13.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
4004* Reintjes, J.W. 1969. Synopsis of biological data on the
Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
Circ. (320):30.
4005* June, F.C., Chamberlain, L. 1959. The role of the estuary
in the life history and biology of Atlantic menhaden. Gulf
Caribb. Fish. Inst. Proc. 1958:41-45.
4006* Nicholson, W.R. 1971. Coastal movements of Atlantic
menhaden as inferred from changes in age and length
distributions. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 100(4):706-716.
4007* Massman, W.H. 1954. Marine fishes in fresh and brackish
waters of Virginia rivers. Ecology 35(1)3:75-78.
4008* Kendall, A.W., Reintjes, J.W. 1975. Geographic and
hydrographic distribution of Atlantic menhaden eggs and larvae
along the middle Atlantic coast from RV Dolphin cruises,
1965-66. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull. 73(2):317-335.
4009* Lewis, R.M., Wilkins, E.P.H., Gordy, H.R. 1972. A
description of young Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, in
the White Oak estuary, North Carolina. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish.
Serv. Fish. Bull. 70(1):115-118.
4010* Meldrim, J.W., Gift, J.J. 1971. Temperature preference,
avoidance and shock experiments with with estuarine fishes.
Ichthyological Assoc. Bull..
4011* Lewis, R.M., Hettler, W.F. 1968. Effect of temperature and
salinity on the survival of young Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia
tyrannus. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 97(4):344-349.
4012* Dahlberg, M.D. 1970. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
menhadens, genus Brevoortia (Pisces:Clupeidae). Bull. Fla.
State. Mus. Biol. Ser. 15(3):91-162.
4013* Kinnear, B.S. 1973. Atlantic menhaden. Proceedings of a
workshop on egg, larval, and juvenile stages of fish in Atlantic
coast estuaries. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Middle Atl.
Coastal Fish. Cent:268-269.
4014* Dovel, W.L. 1971. Fish eggs and larvae of the upper
Chesapeake Bay. Univ. Md. Nat. Resour. Inst. Spec. Rept. (4):71.
4015* Pearson, J.C. 1941. The young of some marine fishes taken
in lower Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, with some special reference
to the gray sea trout , Cynoscion regalis (Bloch). U.S. Fish
Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 50(36):79-102.
4016* June, F.C. 1965. Comparison of vertebral counts of
Atlantic menhaden. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rept.
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
(513):12.
4017* Dryfoos, R.L., Check, R.P., Kroger, R.L. 1973. Preliminary
analysis of Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, migrations,
population structure, survival, and exploitation rates, and
availability as indicated from tag returns. U.S. Natl. Mar.
Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull. 71(3):719-734.
4018* Nichols, J.T., Breder, C.M., Jr. 1927. The marine fishes
of New York and southern New England. Zoologica 9(1):1-192.
4019* Higham, J.R., Nicholson, W.R. 1964. Sexual maturation and
spawning of the Atlantic menhaden. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Fish.
Bull. 63(2):255-271.
4020* McHugh, J.L., Oglesby, R.T., Pacheco, A.L. 1959. Length,
weight, and age composition of the menhaden catch in Virginia
waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42(2):145-162.
4021* Austin, H.M. 1973. The ecology of Lake Montank: planktonic
fish eggs and larvae. N.Y. Ocean Sci. Lab., Tech. Rept.
(0021):37.
4022* Kuntz, A., Radcliffe, L. 1917. Notes on the embryology and
larval development of twelve teleostean fishes. U.S. Bur. Fish.
Bull. 35:87-134.
4023* Richards, S.W. 1959. Pelagic fish eggs and larvae of Long
Island sound. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Collect. Yale Univ.
17(1):95-124.
4024* Reintjes, J.W. 1968. Development and distribution of
larval menhaden. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Biological laboratory, Beaufort, N.C., for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1967. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Circ. 287:9-11.
4025* deSylva, D.P., Kalber, F.A., Schuster, Jr. C.N. 1962. Fish
and ecological conditions in the shore zone of the Deleware
River estuary, with notes on other species collected in deeper
water. Univ. Del. Mar. Lab. Inf. Ser. (5)3:164.
4026* McKenney, T.W. 1969. Life history of Atlantic menhaden.
U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv. Circ. (350):44.
4027* Commission, Marine Resources. 1982. Eighty-third and
eighty-fourth annual reports of the Marine Resources Commission,
VA. Marine Resources Commission VA:65.
59* Rogers, S., M. Van Den Avyle. 1983. Species Profiles: Life
Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and
Invertebrates (South Atlantic) -- Atlantic Menhaden. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service Biol. Rep. 82(11.11) pp 20.
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species menhaden, Atlantic
Species Id M010043
Date 26 AUG 96
171* Street, Mike (ed.), Eric Smith, Joseph McGurrin, Paul Perra.
1988. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission: Fisheries
Management Plans for American Lobster, Atlantic Menhaden,
Northern Shrimp, Red Drum, Shad and River Herrings, Spotted
Seatrout, Summer Flounder, Weakfish. (11). Atlantic States
Marine Fisheries Commission:83.
103* The Atlantic Menhaden Management Board. 1986. 1986 Supplement to
Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan. (8)The Atlantic
Menhaden Management Board. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries
Board Washington, DC pp 61.
182 * Manooch, Charles S. III. 1984. Fisherman's Guide to the
Fishes of the Southeastern United States. North Carolina State
Museum of Natural History Raleigh, North Carolina:362.
References - 4